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Phase 1: Technical Theory | Date: 21 July 2026 | Subject: Computer Fundamentals | Expected Questions in Exam: 9
Today you will build the foundation of computer science. No previous computer knowledge is required.
You will study:
By the end of the day, you should be able to:
A computer is an electronic device that:
A computer does not think like a human. It follows the instructions given by a program.
Data → Input → Processing → Output → Storage
This is commonly called the IPO cycle:
Suppose you enter two numbers, 20 and 30, into a calculator program.
Data means raw facts that have not yet been processed.
Examples:
Information is meaningful output produced after processing data.
Example:
| Basis | Data | Information |
|---|---|---|
| Meaning | Raw facts | Processed and meaningful facts |
| Form | Numbers, text, symbols or images | Reports, results or conclusions |
| Usefulness | May not be directly useful | Useful for decision-making |
| Example | 60, 70, 80 | Average = 70 |
A computer performs millions or billions of operations in a short time.
Common units of time are:
| Unit | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Millisecond | One-thousandth of a second |
| Microsecond | One-millionth of a second |
| Nanosecond | One-billionth of a second |
| Picosecond | One-trillionth of a second |
A computer gives accurate results if:
The principle GIGO means:
Garbage In, Garbage Out
It means incorrect input normally produces incorrect output.
A computer does not become tired or bored. It can repeat the same work many times with the same speed and accuracy.
A computer can store large amounts of data and retrieve it when needed.
After receiving instructions, a computer can perform work automatically without continuous human control.
A computer can perform many different tasks, such as:
A computer can perform repeated tasks consistently.
A computer:
A basic computer contains the following units:
┌──────────────┐
│ Input Unit │
└──────┬───────┘
│
v
┌───────────────────────────────┐
│ CPU │
│ ┌─────────┐ ┌───────────┐ │
│ │ ALU │ │ CU │ │
│ └─────────┘ └───────────┘ │
│ Registers │
└──────────────┬────────────────┘
│
┌────────┴────────┐
v v
┌─────────────┐ ┌─────────────┐
│ Main Memory │ │ Output Unit │
└─────────────┘ └─────────────┘
The input unit accepts data and instructions from the user.
Examples:
CPU stands for Central Processing Unit.
It is often called the brain of the computer because it controls processing.
The CPU mainly includes:
ALU stands for Arithmetic Logic Unit.
It performs:
CU stands for Control Unit.
It:
Registers are very small and very fast memory locations inside the CPU.
The memory unit stores:
The output unit presents processed information to the user.
Examples:
A computer generation represents a major stage in the development of computers.
Each generation is mainly identified by the electronic technology used to build its processing circuits.
Important note: The exact starting and ending years of generations can vary between books. Competitive examinations mainly test the technology, characteristics, languages, and examples associated with each generation.
1940–1956
Some examination books use slightly different dates, such as 1946–1959.
Vacuum tubes
A vacuum tube is an electronic component that controls the flow of electric current. Early computers used thousands of vacuum tubes.
Machine language consists of binary instructions using 0 and 1.
First = Vacuum
Think: “The first room was full of hot vacuum tubes.”
1956–1963
Some books use 1959–1965.
Transistors
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to switch or amplify electronic signals.
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
Compared with first-generation computers, they were:
They still required cooling and maintenance.
Second = Transistor
Think: “Two small transistors replaced many large tubes.”
1964–1971
Integrated Circuits
An Integrated Circuit, or IC, is a small semiconductor chip containing many electronic components.
Instead of using separate transistors, many transistors were placed on one chip.
Multiprogramming means keeping more than one program in memory so the CPU can switch between them.
Time-sharing allows several users or tasks to share computer processing time.
Third = IC
Think: “Three letters in CHIP begin the age of ICs.”
1971–Present
Microprocessors
A microprocessor is a processor built on a single integrated circuit chip.
The development of Large-Scale Integration and Very-Large-Scale Integration made this possible.
VLSI allows thousands or millions of electronic components to be placed on a single chip.
The fourth generation led to the growth of:
The Intel 4004 is commonly described as the first commercially available general-purpose microprocessor.
Fourth = Microprocessor
Think: “The fourth generation put the processor on one chip.”
Present and Future
The fifth generation does not have one universally fixed starting date.
Artificial Intelligence, or AI, is the ability of a computer system to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence.
Examples:
Natural Language Processing, or NLP, helps computers understand and generate human language.
An expert system is a program that uses stored knowledge and rules to make decisions in a specific field.
Parallel processing means using multiple processors or processing units at the same time to solve a problem faster.
Fifth = Intelligence
Think: “The fifth generation tries to make computers intelligent.”
| Generation | Approximate Period | Main Technology | Main Languages/Features | Size and Speed | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | 1940–1956 | Vacuum tubes | Machine language | Very large and slow by modern standards | ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC I |
| Second | 1956–1963 | Transistors | Assembly, FORTRAN, COBOL | Smaller and faster | IBM 1401, IBM 7094 |
| Third | 1964–1971 | Integrated circuits | High-level languages, operating systems | Smaller, faster and more reliable | IBM System/360, PDP-8 |
| Fourth | 1971–Present | Microprocessors, VLSI | Personal computing, networking | Very small and very fast | IBM PC, Macintosh, laptops |
| Fifth | Present and Future | AI, advanced chips, parallel processing | NLP, robotics, machine learning | Extremely powerful and intelligent systems | AI systems, robots, expert systems |
Vacuum → Transistor → IC → Microprocessor → Intelligence
First letters:
V T I M I
Mnemonic:
Very Talented Indians Make Innovations
Computers can be classified as:
An analog computer processes continuously changing physical values.
Examples of continuous values:
A digital computer processes discrete data, usually represented by binary digits 0 and 1.
A hybrid computer combines the features of analog and digital computers.
It may:
| Feature | Analog | Digital | Hybrid |
|---|---|---|---|
| Data type | Continuous | Discrete | Both |
| Result | Usually approximate | Usually precise | Combines measurement and precise processing |
| Example | Analog speedometer | Laptop | Medical monitoring system |
The traditional classification is:
Modern technology has blurred some of these boundaries, but this traditional classification remains important for examinations.
A microcomputer is a small computer based on a microprocessor.
It is usually designed for one user at a time, although it can connect to networks and serve many purposes.
A workstation is a powerful single-user computer designed for tasks such as:
A minicomputer is a medium-sized multi-user computer.
It is more powerful than a traditional microcomputer but less powerful than a mainframe.
The term “minicomputer” is mainly historical. Many of its functions are now performed by modern servers.
A mainframe computer is a large and powerful computer designed to process huge amounts of data and support many users and transactions.
A mainframe is designed mainly for:
A supercomputer is an extremely powerful computer designed to perform complex calculations at very high speed.
Supercomputer performance is commonly measured in FLOPS.
FLOPS stands for Floating-Point Operations Per Second.
Common units include:
| Unit | Meaning |
|---|---|
| MegaFLOPS | Millions of operations per second |
| GigaFLOPS | Billions of operations per second |
| TeraFLOPS | Trillions of operations per second |
| PetaFLOPS | Quadrillions of operations per second |
| ExaFLOPS | Quintillions of operations per second |
PARAM is a well-known series of Indian supercomputers developed by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, or C-DAC.
| Feature | Microcomputer | Minicomputer | Mainframe | Supercomputer |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Typical size | Small | Medium | Large | Very large or specially installed |
| Users | Usually one primary user | Multiple users | Hundreds or thousands | Usually specialist teams |
| Main purpose | Personal and office work | Departmental work | Mass transaction processing | Complex scientific calculations |
| Processing power | Low to high | Medium | Very high | Extremely high |
| Cost | Lowest | Higher | Very high | Extremely high |
| Example use | Home, school, office | Factory or department | Bank or railway system | Weather forecasting |
This is a common examination comparison.
| Mainframe | Supercomputer |
|---|---|
| Handles a very large number of users and transactions | Performs a small number of extremely complex calculations |
| Optimized for reliability and input/output | Optimized for computational speed |
| Used in banks and reservation systems | Used in weather, space and scientific research |
| Focuses on transaction throughput | Focuses on numerical processing power |
An input device is a hardware device used to enter data and instructions into a computer.
Hardware means the physical parts of a computer that can be seen and touched.
Examples:
The input device converts human actions or physical data into a form the computer can process.
A keyboard is an input device used to enter:
| Key Group | Examples | Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Alphanumeric keys | A–Z, 0–9 | Enter letters and numbers |
| Function keys | F1–F12 | Perform special functions |
| Control keys | Ctrl, Alt, Esc | Used with other keys or commands |
| Navigation keys | Arrow keys, Home, End, Page Up | Move through a document |
| Editing keys | Insert, Delete, Backspace | Modify content |
| Numeric keypad | 0–9, +, −, ×, ÷ | Fast numeric entry |
| Toggle keys | Caps Lock, Num Lock, Scroll Lock | Turn a mode on or off |
| Key | Main Function |
|---|---|
| Enter | Confirms a command or starts a new line |
| Spacebar | Inserts a blank space |
| Backspace | Deletes the character to the left |
| Delete | Deletes the selected item or character to the right |
| Shift | Produces uppercase letters or upper symbols |
| Caps Lock | Turns continuous uppercase typing on or off |
| Tab | Moves to the next field or tab position |
| Esc | Cancels or exits the current action |
| Ctrl | Used in keyboard shortcuts |
| Alt | Used for alternate commands |
| Print Screen | Captures the screen image |
The most common keyboard layout is QWERTY, named after the first six letters on its top alphabet row.
A mouse is a pointing input device used to control a pointer on the screen.
| Action | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Point | Move the pointer to an item |
| Click | Press and release a mouse button once |
| Double-click | Press the button twice quickly |
| Right-click | Open a shortcut or context menu |
| Drag | Hold a button and move an object |
| Drop | Release the button after dragging |
| Scroll | Move through a page using the wheel |
An optical mouse uses light and an image sensor to detect movement.
A traditional mechanical mouse uses a ball to detect movement.
A scanner is an input device that converts a paper document, photograph, or printed image into digital form.
The digital copy is often called a soft copy.
| Scanner Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Flatbed scanner | Document is placed on a flat glass surface |
| Handheld scanner | Scanner is moved by hand across the document |
| Sheet-fed scanner | Paper moves through the scanner |
| Drum scanner | High-quality scanner used in professional work |
Scanner resolution is commonly measured in DPI.
DPI stands for Dots Per Inch.
A higher DPI usually captures more detail, but it also creates a larger file.
| Scanner | Printer |
|---|---|
| Input device | Output device |
| Converts paper to digital form | Converts digital information to paper |
| Creates a soft copy | Creates a hard copy |
OMR stands for Optical Mark Recognition or Optical Mark Reader, depending on whether the term refers to the process or device.
OMR detects marks made in fixed positions on a specially designed sheet.
An OMR device can detect that option B is shaded, but it does not understand the meaning of the sentence.
OCR stands for Optical Character Recognition.
OCR converts printed or handwritten characters in an image into editable and searchable text.
A page is scanned as an image. OCR software recognizes the letters and converts the image into text that can be edited in a word processor.
OCR accuracy may decrease when:
| Feature | OMR | OCR |
|---|---|---|
| Full form | Optical Mark Recognition | Optical Character Recognition |
| Reads | Shaded marks in fixed positions | Printed or handwritten characters |
| Common use | Examination answer sheets | Digitizing printed documents |
| Output | Marked option or position | Editable text |
| Form requirement | Usually requires a special form | Can process ordinary printed pages |
| Example | Detecting a shaded circle | Recognizing the word “Computer” |
MICR stands for Magnetic Ink Character Recognition.
MICR reads characters printed with special magnetic ink.
MICR is mainly used by banks to process cheques.
The MICR line normally appears near the bottom of a cheque.
It may contain:
| Feature | MICR | OCR |
|---|---|---|
| Reads | Characters printed with magnetic ink | Printed or handwritten characters |
| Main technology | Magnetic properties | Optical character recognition |
| Main use | Bank cheques | Books and printed documents |
| Special ink needed | Yes | No |
| Common field | Banking | Document digitization |
MICR = Magnetic Ink on Cheques
A light pen is a pen-shaped pointing input device used to select or draw directly on a compatible screen.
Traditional light pens were mainly associated with CRT monitors.
CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube.
A CRT monitor creates an image by directing an electron beam onto a phosphor-coated screen.
A light pen is an input device, not an output device.
It should not be confused with:
A barcode reader is an input device used to read barcodes.
A barcode represents data using a pattern of:
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| 1D barcode | Uses lines and spaces | Product barcode |
| 2D code | Stores data in two dimensions | QR code |
QR stands for Quick Response.
A QR code can normally store more information than a traditional one-dimensional barcode.
A microphone enters sound into a computer.
Uses:
A webcam enters video or images into a computer.
A joystick controls movement or direction.
Uses:
A trackball is a stationary pointing device. The user rotates a ball to move the pointer.
A touchpad is a flat pointing surface commonly found on laptops.
A touchscreen acts as both:
A digitizer converts drawings, maps, or handwritten data into digital form.
A biometric device recognizes a person using biological characteristics.
Examples:
A card reader reads information stored on cards.
Examples:
| Device | What It Reads or Accepts | Common Use |
|---|---|---|
| Keyboard | Letters, numbers and commands | Typing |
| Mouse | Pointer movement and clicks | Graphical control |
| Scanner | Documents and photographs | Paper-to-digital conversion |
| OMR | Shaded marks | Examination sheets |
| OCR | Printed or handwritten characters | Editable text creation |
| MICR | Magnetic ink characters | Bank cheques |
| Light pen | Screen position | Selection and drawing |
| Barcode reader | Barcode patterns | Retail and inventory |
| Microphone | Sound | Audio input |
| Webcam | Video and images | Video calls |
| Joystick | Direction and movement | Games and simulations |
| Touchscreen | Touch position | Phones and kiosks |
| Biometric scanner | Biological characteristics | Identification |
An output device is a hardware device that presents processed information from a computer to a user.
Output may appear as:
A soft copy is electronic output that is viewed or stored digitally.
Examples:
A hard copy is physical output printed on paper or another material.
Examples:
A monitor is a visual output device that displays text, images, video, and graphical information.
A monitor is also called:
A pixel is the smallest picture element on a digital display.
A screen image is formed by many pixels.
Resolution is the number of pixels displayed on the screen.
Example:
1920 × 1080 means:
Higher resolution generally gives more image detail.
The refresh rate is the number of times the screen updates its image per second.
It is measured in hertz, written as Hz.
Example:
A 60 Hz monitor refreshes the screen approximately 60 times per second.
Monitor size is measured diagonally, usually in inches.
Dot pitch is the distance between similar-colored dots or subpixels on a display.
A smaller dot pitch generally gives a sharper image.
CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube.
It uses an electron beam and a phosphor-coated screen.
LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display.
It uses liquid crystals to control light.
An LCD panel requires a light source because liquid crystals do not produce light by themselves.
LED stands for Light-Emitting Diode.
Most devices called LED monitors are LCD panels that use LED backlighting.
An LED monitor is generally a type of LCD display using LED backlighting.
OLED stands for Organic Light-Emitting Diode.
In an OLED display, individual pixels produce their own light.
| Feature | CRT | LCD | LED-Backlit LCD | OLED |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Full form | Cathode Ray Tube | Liquid Crystal Display | Light-Emitting Diode backlight | Organic Light-Emitting Diode |
| Physical form | Bulky | Flat | Flat and thin | Very thin |
| Power use | High | Lower | Low | Varies, often efficient for dark images |
| Backlight | Not applicable | Required | LED backlight | Not required |
| Heat | High | Low | Low | Low |
| Main status | Older technology | Common flat-panel technology | Very common | Advanced display technology |
A printer is an output device that produces a hard copy.
Printers are mainly classified into:
An impact printer creates output by physically striking an inked ribbon against paper.
It works in a way similar to a typewriter.
A dot matrix printer uses a print head containing pins.
The pins strike an inked ribbon and create characters using patterns of dots.
A daisy wheel printer has a wheel with characters shaped like petals.
A hammer strikes a character against an inked ribbon.
A line printer prints an entire line at a time.
A non-impact printer prints without striking a ribbon against the paper.
An inkjet printer sprays tiny drops of ink onto paper.
A laser printer uses:
Toner is a fine powder used by laser printers.
A thermal printer uses heat to produce an image.
Receipt paper from a direct thermal printer may fade over time.
A photo printer is designed to produce high-quality photographic output.
| Feature | Impact Printer | Non-Impact Printer |
|---|---|---|
| Printing method | Strikes ribbon against paper | No physical striking |
| Noise | Noisy | Quiet |
| Print quality | Usually lower | Usually higher |
| Graphics | Limited | Better |
| Multipart forms | Suitable | Usually not suitable |
| Examples | Dot matrix, daisy wheel, line printer | Inkjet, laser, thermal |
Impact = Hits
Non-impact = No Hit
Printers may also be classified by the amount printed at one time.
| Type | Prints | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Character printer | One character at a time | Dot matrix, daisy wheel |
| Line printer | One line at a time | Drum printer, chain printer |
| Page printer | One page at a time | Laser printer |
| Printer Type | Common Speed Unit |
|---|---|
| Character printer | CPS |
| Line printer | LPM |
| Page printer | PPM |
Full forms:
Print quality may be measured in DPI, or Dots Per Inch.
A plotter is an output device that produces large, precise drawings.
Plotters are commonly used for:
CAD stands for Computer-Aided Design.
Modern plotters often use inkjet technology to print large drawings and posters.
| Printer | Plotter |
|---|---|
| Commonly produces documents and images | Produces large and precise drawings |
| Used in homes and offices | Used in engineering, architecture and mapping |
| Standard paper sizes are common | Large paper sizes are common |
| Focuses on general printing | Focuses on scale and precision |
A speaker produces sound output.
Headphones produce private sound output.
A projector displays computer output on a large screen or wall.
A Braille embosser produces raised Braille dots on paper for visually impaired users.
An actuator converts a control signal into physical movement.
Examples:
Some devices perform both functions.
| Device | Input Function | Output Function |
|---|---|---|
| Touchscreen | Detects touch | Displays information |
| Modem | Receives data | Sends data |
| Network interface card | Receives network data | Sends network data |
| Multifunction printer | Scans documents | Prints documents |
| Headset | Microphone enters sound | Headphones produce sound |
Computer memory is the storage space used to hold:
Memory is organized as a hierarchy because no single memory technology is simultaneously:
Fast memory is generally more expensive per unit of storage. Large and inexpensive storage is generally slower.
Fastest, smallest and most expensive per bit
▲
│
Registers
│
Cache
L1 → L2 → L3
│
Main Memory
RAM
│
Secondary Storage
SSD / HDD
│
Optical and Tape
│
▼
Slowest, largest and cheapest per bit
As we move upward:
As we move downward:
The smallest unit of data is a bit.
A bit can have one of two values:
| Unit | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Bit | One binary digit |
| Nibble | 4 bits |
| Byte | 8 bits |
| Word | A group of bits processed as one unit by a CPU |
| Unit | Traditional Exam Relationship |
|---|---|
| 1 KB | 1024 bytes |
| 1 MB | 1024 KB |
| 1 GB | 1024 MB |
| 1 TB | 1024 GB |
| 1 PB | 1024 TB |
Full forms:
Modern standards distinguish decimal and binary prefixes:
However, many competitive-examination questions use 1 KB = 1024 bytes. Follow the convention stated in the question.
Volatile memory loses its contents when power is switched off.
Examples:
Non-volatile memory keeps its contents even after power is switched off.
Examples:
| Volatile Memory | Non-Volatile Memory |
|---|---|
| Requires power to retain data | Retains data without power |
| Usually very fast | Speed varies |
| Used for active processing | Used for permanent or long-term storage |
| Examples: RAM, cache | Examples: ROM, SSD, HDD |
A register is a very small, extremely fast storage location inside the CPU.
Registers hold data and instructions currently being processed.
| Register | Function |
|---|---|
| Program Counter | Holds the address of the next instruction |
| Instruction Register | Holds the current instruction |
| Memory Address Register | Holds the address of a memory location |
| Memory Data Register | Holds data moving to or from memory |
| Accumulator | Holds intermediate arithmetic or logical results |
You will study registers in more detail in Computer Organization.
Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory placed close to or inside the CPU.
It stores frequently or recently used data and instructions.
The CPU is much faster than main memory. If the CPU had to wait for RAM every time, performance would decrease.
Cache reduces this speed difference.
A cache hit occurs when the required data is found in the cache.
A cache miss occurs when the required data is not found in the cache.
| Cache Level | General Position | General Speed | General Capacity |
|---|---|---|---|
| L1 | Closest to individual CPU core | Fastest cache level | Smallest |
| L2 | Close to or inside CPU core | Slower than L1 | Larger than L1 |
| L3 | Often shared among CPU cores | Slower than L2 | Larger than L2 |
Registers → L1 → L2 → L3 → RAM → Secondary Storage
Cache is commonly made using SRAM, or Static Random Access Memory.
Primary memory is memory directly accessible by the CPU for current processing.
It mainly includes:
Some classifications also discuss cache and registers as parts of internal or primary memory.
RAM stands for Random Access Memory.
It temporarily stores programs and data currently being used.
“Random access” means any memory location can be accessed directly in approximately the same amount of time.
It does not mean the data is accessed without order or purpose.
When you open a web browser:
The two main types are:
SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory.
It stores data using electronic circuits commonly called flip-flops.
The word “static” does not mean permanent. SRAM still loses data when power is removed.
DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory.
It stores each bit using a capacitor and a transistor.
The stored electrical charge leaks, so the data must be refreshed periodically.
| Feature | SRAM | DRAM |
|---|---|---|
| Full form | Static RAM | Dynamic RAM |
| Speed | Faster | Slower |
| Cost | More expensive | Less expensive |
| Refresh required | No periodic refresh | Yes |
| Density | Lower | Higher |
| Common use | Cache | Main memory |
| Volatility | Volatile | Volatile |
SDRAM stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory.
It works in synchronization with the system clock.
DDR stands for Double Data Rate.
DDR memory transfers data more than once per clock cycle.
Generations include:
A newer DDR generation generally offers improved performance and efficiency, but different generations are not automatically interchangeable because their electrical and physical designs differ.
ROM stands for Read-Only Memory.
ROM is non-volatile memory used to store instructions that should remain available after power is removed.
ROM or non-volatile flash memory may store startup firmware such as BIOS or UEFI.
Mask ROM is programmed during manufacturing.
Its contents are normally fixed and cannot be changed by the user.
PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory.
PROM = Program Once
EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory.
E in EPROM = Erased by UV Exposure
EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory.
The two Es mean:
Electrically Erasable
Flash memory is a type of electrically erasable non-volatile memory.
It generally erases and writes data in blocks.
| Type | Full Form | How It Is Programmed or Erased | Reusable? |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mask ROM | Factory-programmed ROM | Programmed during manufacturing | Normally no |
| PROM | Programmable ROM | Programmed once | Normally no |
| EPROM | Erasable Programmable ROM | Erased using ultraviolet light | Yes |
| EEPROM | Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM | Erased electrically | Yes |
| Flash | Flash memory | Electrically erased in blocks | Yes |
| Feature | RAM | ROM |
|---|---|---|
| Full form | Random Access Memory | Read-Only Memory |
| Nature | Read and write | Primarily stores persistent instructions |
| Volatility | Volatile | Non-volatile |
| Main purpose | Current programs and data | Firmware and startup instructions |
| Speed | Generally faster | Generally slower than RAM |
| Contents after power-off | Lost | Retained |
| Examples | SRAM, DRAM | PROM, EPROM, EEPROM |
Virtual memory is a memory-management technique in which part of secondary storage is used to support programs when available physical RAM is insufficient.
Virtual memory is not an additional physical RAM chip.
It is created and managed by the operating system using storage space on an SSD or HDD.
textActive data Less-used data │ │ v v ┌─────────┐ Transfer ┌─────────────┐ │ RAM │ <----------> │ SSD or HDD │ └─────────┘ └─────────────┘
| RAM | Virtual Memory |
|---|---|
| Physical semiconductor memory | Memory-management technique using storage |
| Very fast | Much slower than RAM |
| Installed as hardware | Managed by the operating system |
| Limited by physical RAM capacity | Uses available SSD or HDD space |
| Primary memory | Uses secondary storage to support primary memory |
Secondary storage is non-volatile storage used to keep data and programs for a long time.
Magnetic storage records data using magnetic patterns.
HDD stands for Hard Disk Drive.
An HDD contains rotating magnetic platters and moving read/write heads.
Magnetic tape stores data on a long magnetic strip.
Sequential access means data is accessed in order rather than jumping directly to any location.
Optical storage uses laser light to read or write data.
| Disc | Full Form | Typical Use |
|---|---|---|
| CD | Compact Disc | Music and data |
| DVD | Digital Versatile Disc | Video and data |
| Blu-ray Disc | High-capacity optical disc | High-definition video and data |
A standard CD commonly stores about 700 MB.
DVD and Blu-ray discs generally store more data than CDs.
| Ending | Meaning |
|---|---|
| ROM | Read-only |
| R | Recordable, normally written once |
| RW or RE | Rewritable |
Examples:
Solid-state storage uses electronic memory and has no moving mechanical parts.
SSD stands for Solid-State Drive.
A portable device using flash memory.
A small flash-storage device used in:
Examples:
| Feature | HDD | SSD |
|---|---|---|
| Full form | Hard Disk Drive | Solid-State Drive |
| Technology | Magnetic rotating platters | Flash memory |
| Moving parts | Yes | No |
| Speed | Slower | Faster |
| Noise | May produce sound | Silent |
| Shock resistance | Lower | Higher |
| Cost per GB | Usually lower | Usually higher |
| Power consumption | Generally higher | Generally lower |
| Memory Type | Typical Capacity | Relative Speed | Volatile? | Main Use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Registers | Tiny | Fastest | Yes | Current CPU data and instructions |
| L1 Cache | Very small | Extremely fast | Yes | Most immediately needed data |
| L2 Cache | Small | Very fast | Yes | Frequently used data |
| L3 Cache | Larger than L1/L2 | Fast | Yes | Shared CPU cache |
| RAM | GB range | Fast | Yes | Running programs and active data |
| ROM/Flash firmware | Small to moderate | Moderate | No | Firmware and startup instructions |
| SSD | Large | Faster secondary storage | No | Programs and files |
| HDD | Very large | Slower than SSD | No | Long-term mass storage |
| Optical disc | Moderate | Slow | No | Distribution and archival storage |
| Magnetic tape | Very large | Slow sequential access | No | Backup and archives |
Registers > Cache > RAM > SSD > HDD > Optical Disc/Tape
The exact order between some devices can vary by technology and workload, but this is the standard examination order.
Software is a collection of programs, instructions, and related data that tells a computer what to do.
Software cannot normally be touched physically.
Examples:
| Hardware | Software |
|---|---|
| Physical components | Programs and instructions |
| Can be touched | Cannot normally be touched |
| Examples: keyboard, monitor, CPU | Examples: Windows, Word, browser |
| Suffers physical wear | May become corrupted or outdated |
| Needs software to perform useful tasks | Needs hardware to run |
A program is an ordered set of instructions written to perform a particular task.
Examples:
Software is commonly divided into:
Utility software is often considered a part of system software, but examinations may list it as a separate category.
System software controls computer hardware and provides a platform for application software.
An operating system, or OS, is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources.
A platform is the environment in which application programs run.
For example, Microsoft Word runs on an operating system such as Windows or macOS.
A device driver is system software that helps the operating system communicate with a hardware device.
The operating system and hardware may use different technical commands. A driver acts like a translator between them.
A language translator converts a program from one language into another form.
The main translators are:
These are explained in detail later.
Application software helps the user perform a specific task.
Designed for common tasks used by many people.
Examples:
Designed for one particular type of task.
Examples:
Developed according to the needs of a specific organization or user.
Example:
A school may order a customized student-management system.
Utility software helps maintain, protect, analyze, or optimize a computer system.
| Utility | Purpose |
|---|---|
| Antivirus | Detects and removes malicious software |
| Backup utility | Creates copies of data |
| File-compression tool | Reduces file size |
| Disk-cleanup tool | Removes unnecessary files |
| Disk-checking tool | Checks storage for errors |
| Firewall | Monitors or controls network traffic |
| File manager | Organizes files and folders |
| Encryption utility | Protects data by transforming it |
| Recovery utility | Attempts to recover lost data |
Compression reduces the size of a file.
Examples of compressed formats:
A backup is a separate copy of data made so it can be restored after data loss or damage.
| Feature | System Software | Application Software | Utility Software |
|---|---|---|---|
| Main purpose | Manages hardware and provides a platform | Performs user tasks | Maintains or protects the system |
| User interaction | Often works in the background | Directly used by users | Used when maintenance or protection is needed |
| Examples | Operating system, driver, translator | Word processor, browser, payroll software | Antivirus, backup, compression |
| Essential for normal operation | Usually yes | Depends on user needs | Helpful for maintenance |
Before understanding translators, you must know the main levels of programming languages.
Machine language consists of binary instructions.
Example form:
10110000 01100001
Assembly language uses short symbolic instructions called mnemonics.
Examples:
MOV
ADD
SUB
JMP
It is easier for humans than machine language but is still closely connected to a processor’s architecture.
An assembler converts assembly language into machine code.
A high-level language uses statements closer to human language and mathematical notation.
Examples:
A high-level program generally needs a:
Some modern language systems use a mixture of compilation and interpretation.
An assembler is a language translator that converts assembly language into machine code.
Assembly Language → Assembler → Machine Code
ADD R1, R2
The assembler converts this symbolic instruction into a binary instruction the CPU can execute.
An assembler translates:
Assembly language, not a high-level language
A compiler translates a complete high-level program into target code before normal program execution.
The target may be:
Entire Source Program
│
v
Compiler
│
v
Object/Target Code
│
v
Executable Program
The source program is the original program written by the programmer.
Object code is translated code produced by a compiler or assembler before final linking.
An executable program is a program prepared in a form that the system can run.
Real language implementations can be more complex. For example, Java is commonly compiled into bytecode, which is then executed by a virtual machine. For basic examination questions, remember the standard distinction between complete-program compilation and statement-by-statement interpretation.
An interpreter translates and executes source instructions during program execution, often one statement or unit at a time.
Source Statement
│
v
Interpreter
│
v
Immediate Execution
Then the interpreter moves to the next statement.
| Feature | Compiler | Interpreter |
|---|---|---|
| Translation | Translates the whole program as a unit | Translates and executes during runtime |
| Error reporting | Usually reports errors after compilation | Often stops at the first encountered error |
| Execution speed | Compiled program usually runs faster | Usually slower in the textbook model |
| Separate target code | Commonly produced | Usually not produced in the simple model |
| Repeated execution | Uses already translated program | Translation may happen again during execution |
| Debugging | May be less immediate | Easier to test line by line |
| Common textbook examples | C, C++ | Python, JavaScript |
The three important initial letters are:
| Translator | Input | Output/Action | Basic Method |
|---|---|---|---|
| Assembler | Assembly language | Machine or object code | Translates symbolic low-level instructions |
| Compiler | High-level language | Target/object/executable code | Translates complete program as a unit |
| Interpreter | High-level language | Executes during translation | Works during runtime, often one statement at a time |
These terms are related to program translation.
A linker combines object files and required libraries to create an executable program.
Source Code
│
v
Compiler
│
v
Object Code
│
v
Linker + Libraries
│
v
Executable File
A loader places an executable program into main memory so that it can run.
Compiler → Linker → Loader → Execution
Firmware is program code stored in non-volatile memory that provides low-level control for a hardware device.
It is sometimes described as:
Software embedded in hardware
A firmware update replaces or modifies firmware to:
An interrupted or incorrect firmware update can make a device unusable, so updates must be performed carefully.
BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System.
It is traditional computer firmware that initializes hardware during startup and begins the process of loading the operating system.
UEFI stands for Unified Extensible Firmware Interface.
It is a modern firmware interface that has replaced traditional BIOS in many systems.
Power On
│
v
BIOS/UEFI initializes and checks hardware
│
v
Boot device is located
│
v
Operating system is loaded into RAM
│
v
Computer becomes ready for use
Booting is the process of starting a computer and loading the operating system into memory.
| Hardware | Firmware | General Software |
|---|---|---|
| Physical electronic device | Low-level code embedded in a device | Programs used by the system or user |
| Can be physically touched | Stored in non-volatile memory | Stored on storage devices |
| Example: router | Example: router firmware | Example: browser |
| Forms the device | Controls basic device operation | Performs broader system or user tasks |
| Abbreviation | Full Form | Meaning or Use |
|---|---|---|
| ALU | Arithmetic Logic Unit | Performs arithmetic and logical operations |
| BIOS | Basic Input/Output System | Traditional startup firmware |
| CPU | Central Processing Unit | Processes instructions |
| CU | Control Unit | Controls computer operations |
| GPU | Graphics Processing Unit | Processes graphics and parallel workloads |
| IPO | Input-Process-Output | Basic working cycle |
| PC | Personal Computer | Computer designed mainly for individual use |
| POST | Power-On Self-Test | Startup hardware-checking process |
| UEFI | Unified Extensible Firmware Interface | Modern firmware interface |
| UPS | Uninterruptible Power Supply | Provides temporary backup power |
| Abbreviation | Full Form |
|---|---|
| bit | Binary Digit |
| B | Byte |
| KB | Kilobyte |
| MB | Megabyte |
| GB | Gigabyte |
| TB | Terabyte |
| RAM | Random Access Memory |
| ROM | Read-Only Memory |
| SRAM | Static Random Access Memory |
| DRAM | Dynamic Random Access Memory |
| SDRAM | Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory |
| DDR | Double Data Rate |
| PROM | Programmable Read-Only Memory |
| EPROM | Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory |
| EEPROM | Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory |
| HDD | Hard Disk Drive |
| SSD | Solid-State Drive |
| CD | Compact Disc |
| DVD | Digital Versatile Disc |
| USB | Universal Serial Bus |
| Abbreviation | Full Form |
|---|---|
| OMR | Optical Mark Recognition/Reader |
| OCR | Optical Character Recognition |
| MICR | Magnetic Ink Character Recognition |
| QR | Quick Response |
| CRT | Cathode Ray Tube |
| LCD | Liquid Crystal Display |
| LED | Light-Emitting Diode |
| OLED | Organic Light-Emitting Diode |
| DPI | Dots Per Inch |
| PPI | Pixels Per Inch |
| CPS | Characters Per Second |
| LPM | Lines Per Minute |
| PPM | Pages Per Minute |
| VDU | Visual Display Unit |
| CAD | Computer-Aided Design |
| Abbreviation | Full Form |
|---|---|
| OS | Operating System |
| GUI | Graphical User Interface |
| CLI | Command-Line Interface |
| API | Application Programming Interface |
| IDE | Integrated Development Environment |
| FORTRAN | Formula Translation |
| COBOL | Common Business-Oriented Language |
| BASIC | Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code |
| DBMS | Database Management System |
| AI | Artificial Intelligence |
| NLP | Natural Language Processing |
| Abbreviation | Full Form |
|---|---|
| ASCII | American Standard Code for Information Interchange |
| BCD | Binary-Coded Decimal |
| EBCDIC | Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code |
| IC | Integrated Circuit |
| LSI | Large-Scale Integration |
| VLSI | Very-Large-Scale Integration |
| FLOPS | Floating-Point Operations Per Second |
| LAN | Local Area Network |
| WAN | Wide Area Network |
| WWW | World Wide Web |
| URL | Uniform Resource Locator |
| Portable Document Format |
| Generation | Main Technology | Main Example |
|---|---|---|
| First | Vacuum tubes | ENIAC |
| Second | Transistors | IBM 1401 |
| Third | Integrated circuits | IBM System/360 |
| Fourth | Microprocessors and VLSI | IBM PC |
| Fifth | AI and parallel processing | Intelligent systems |
Mnemonic:
Very Talented Indians Make Innovations
| Type | Best Description |
|---|---|
| Microcomputer | Small computer mainly designed for individual use |
| Minicomputer | Medium-sized system traditionally used by several users |
| Mainframe | Large system designed for many users and massive transaction processing |
| Supercomputer | Extremely powerful system designed for complex scientific calculations |
| Type | Data | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Analog | Continuous values | Traditional analog speedometer |
| Digital | Discrete or binary data | Laptop |
| Hybrid | Both continuous and digital data | Patient-monitoring system |
| Device | Main Function |
|---|---|
| Keyboard | Enters letters, numbers, and commands |
| Mouse | Controls the on-screen pointer |
| Scanner | Converts paper documents into digital form |
| OMR | Detects shaded marks |
| OCR | Converts document images into editable text |
| MICR | Reads characters printed with magnetic ink |
| Light pen | Selects or draws on a compatible display |
| Barcode reader | Reads barcode patterns |
| Microphone | Enters sound |
| Webcam | Enters images and video |
| Joystick | Enters movement and direction |
| Biometric scanner | Reads fingerprints, irises, or other biological features |
| Device | Main Function |
|---|---|
| Monitor | Produces visual soft-copy output |
| Printer | Produces hard-copy output |
| Plotter | Produces large and precise drawings |
| Speaker | Produces sound |
| Projector | Displays output on a large surface |
| Type | Key Point |
|---|---|
| CRT | Bulky display using a cathode ray tube |
| LCD | Flat display using liquid crystals |
| LED monitor | Usually an LCD panel using LED backlighting |
| OLED | Individual pixels produce their own light |
| Impact Printers | Non-Impact Printers |
|---|---|
| Dot matrix | Inkjet |
| Daisy wheel | Laser |
| Drum printer | Thermal |
| Chain printer | Photo printer |
Memory trick:
Fastest and smallest
▲
│
Registers
│
L1 Cache
│
L2 Cache
│
L3 Cache
│
RAM
│
SSD and HDD
│
Optical Disc and Tape
│
▼
Slowest and largest
Moving upward:
Moving downward:
| Unit | Relationship Commonly Used in Exams |
|---|---|
| 1 nibble | 4 bits |
| 1 byte | 8 bits |
| 1 KB | 1024 bytes |
| 1 MB | 1024 KB |
| 1 GB | 1024 MB |
| 1 TB | 1024 GB |
| Volatile | Non-Volatile |
|---|---|
| Loses data when power is removed | Keeps data without power |
| Registers, cache, RAM | ROM, SSD, HDD, optical disc |
| Level | Relative Speed | Relative Capacity |
|---|---|---|
| L1 | Fastest cache | Smallest |
| L2 | Slower than L1 | Larger than L1 |
| L3 | Slower than L2 | Usually larger than L2 |
| SRAM | DRAM |
|---|---|
| Static Random Access Memory | Dynamic Random Access Memory |
| Faster | Slower |
| More expensive | Less expensive |
| No periodic refresh required | Requires periodic refresh |
| Commonly used for cache | Commonly used for main memory |
| Volatile | Volatile |
Mnemonic:
| RAM | ROM |
|---|---|
| Random Access Memory | Read-Only Memory |
| Volatile | Non-volatile |
| Stores active programs and data | Stores firmware or persistent instructions |
| Read and write | Primarily used for persistent reading |
| SRAM and DRAM | PROM, EPROM, EEPROM |
| Type | Key Point |
|---|---|
| Mask ROM | Programmed during manufacturing |
| PROM | Programmed once |
| EPROM | Erased using ultraviolet light |
| EEPROM | Erased electrically |
| Flash memory | Electrically erased in blocks |
| Category | Examples |
|---|---|
| Magnetic | HDD, magnetic tape |
| Optical | CD, DVD, Blu-ray Disc |
| Solid-state | SSD, USB flash drive, memory card |
| HDD | SSD |
|---|---|
| Magnetic storage | Flash-based storage |
| Has moving parts | No moving mechanical parts |
| Slower | Faster |
| May produce noise | Silent |
| Usually cheaper per GB | Usually more expensive per GB |
| Category | Purpose | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| System software | Manages hardware and provides a platform | Operating system, driver, translator |
| Application software | Performs user tasks | Word processor, browser, payroll program |
| Utility software | Maintains, protects, or optimizes a system | Antivirus, backup, compression tool |
| Translator | Input | Main Action |
|---|---|---|
| Assembler | Assembly language | Converts assembly instructions into machine or object code |
| Compiler | High-level language | Translates the complete program as a unit |
| Interpreter | High-level language | Translates and executes during runtime, often one statement at a time |
Mnemonic:
Source Code
│
v
Compiler
│
v
Object Code
│
v
Linker
│
v
Executable File
│
v
Loader
│
v
Execution
Power On
│
v
BIOS or UEFI initializes hardware
│
v
Boot device is found
│
v
Operating system is loaded into RAM
│
v
Computer becomes ready
| Abbreviation | Full Form |
|---|---|
| ALU | Arithmetic Logic Unit |
| BIOS | Basic Input/Output System |
| CPU | Central Processing Unit |
| CU | Control Unit |
| GPU | Graphics Processing Unit |
| RAM | Random Access Memory |
| ROM | Read-Only Memory |
| SRAM | Static Random Access Memory |
| DRAM | Dynamic Random Access Memory |
| PROM | Programmable Read-Only Memory |
| EPROM | Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory |
| EEPROM | Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory |
| HDD | Hard Disk Drive |
| SSD | Solid-State Drive |
| USB | Universal Serial Bus |
| OMR | Optical Mark Recognition or Optical Mark Reader |
| OCR | Optical Character Recognition |
| MICR | Magnetic Ink Character Recognition |
| CRT | Cathode Ray Tube |
| LCD | Liquid Crystal Display |
| LED | Light-Emitting Diode |
| OLED | Organic Light-Emitting Diode |
| DPI | Dots Per Inch |
| VDU | Visual Display Unit |
| OS | Operating System |
| GUI | Graphical User Interface |
| CLI | Command-Line Interface |
| IC | Integrated Circuit |
| LSI | Large-Scale Integration |
| VLSI | Very-Large-Scale Integration |
| FLOPS | Floating-Point Operations Per Second |
| UEFI | Unified Extensible Firmware Interface |
| POST | Power-On Self-Test |
| UPS | Uninterruptible Power Supply |
| CD | Compact Disc |
| DVD |
Which technology was primarily used in first-generation computers?
A. Transistors
B. Vacuum tubes
C. Integrated circuits
D. Microprocessors
Which pair is correctly matched?
A. First generation — Microprocessors
B. Second generation — Vacuum tubes
C. Third generation — Integrated circuits
D. Fourth generation — Transistors
Which of the following is an example of a first-generation computer?
A. IBM PC
B. IBM System/360
C. ENIAC
D. PDP-8
The development of the microprocessor is most closely connected with which computer generation?
A. First generation
B. Second generation
C. Third generation
D. Fourth generation
Which feature is most strongly associated with fifth-generation computers?
A. Punched-card processing
B. Vacuum-tube switching
C. Artificial intelligence
D. Magnetic-drum-only storage
Which computer is mainly optimized to handle a very large number of users and transactions?
A. Mainframe computer
B. Analog computer
C. Supercomputer
D. Personal calculator
Which computer is most suitable for complex weather forecasting and climate modelling?
A. Microcomputer
B. Minicomputer
C. Mainframe
D. Supercomputer
A computer that processes continuously changing values such as temperature and pressure is called:
A. Digital computer
B. Analog computer
C. Mainframe computer
D. Microcomputer
Which device is mainly used to detect shaded answers on a multiple-choice examination sheet?
A. OCR
B. MICR
C. OMR
D. Plotter
A scanned book page must be converted into editable text. Which technology should be used?
A. OMR
B. OCR
C. MICR
D. CRT
MICR is primarily associated with:
A. Reading bank cheques
B. Printing engineering drawings
C. Reading examination marks
D. Displaying video
Which of the following is an input device traditionally designed to select or draw directly on a compatible CRT screen?
A. Plotter
B. Light pen
C. Laser printer
D. Speaker
Which statement about a scanner is correct?
A. It converts a digital document into a paper document.
B. It is only an output device.
C. It converts a paper document or image into digital form.
D. It reads only magnetic ink.
Which of the following can function as both an input and an output device?
A. Traditional keyboard
B. Touchscreen
C. Speaker
D. Plotter
Which monitor technology uses a cathode ray tube?
A. OLED
B. LCD
C. CRT
D. LED-backlit LCD
Which statement about an OLED display is correct?
A. It always requires a separate backlight.
B. Its individual pixels can produce their own light.
C. It uses an inked ribbon.
D. It is an impact device.
Which of the following is an impact printer?
A. Laser printer
B. Inkjet printer
C. Thermal printer
D. Dot matrix printer
Which printer uses toner powder and commonly prints a complete page at a time?
A. Daisy wheel printer
B. Laser printer
C. Dot matrix printer
D. Drum plotter
Which device is most suitable for producing a large architectural plan?
A. OMR reader
B. Plotter
C. Keyboard
D. Microphone
Which is the correct general order from fastest to slowest?
A. RAM → Cache → Register → HDD
B. Register → Cache → RAM → HDD
C. HDD → RAM → Cache → Register
D. Cache → Register → HDD → RAM
Which memory is commonly used to build CPU cache?
A. DRAM
B. Magnetic tape
C. SRAM
D. Optical disc
Which statement correctly compares SRAM and DRAM?
A. SRAM requires refreshing, but DRAM does not.
B. DRAM is normally faster and more expensive than SRAM.
C. SRAM is normally faster and does not require periodic refreshing.
D. Both are non-volatile.
Which memory type is volatile?
A. RAM
B. ROM
C. SSD
D. Blu-ray Disc
Which type of ROM is erased using ultraviolet light?
A. PROM
B. EPROM
C. EEPROM
D. Mask ROM
Which type of ROM can be erased electrically?
A. PROM only
B. Mask ROM
C. EEPROM
D. Magnetic ROM
What is virtual memory?
A. A very fast register inside the CPU
B. A memory-management technique using secondary storage to support RAM
C. A type of optical disc
D. A permanent replacement for the CPU cache
Which statement about virtual memory is correct?
A. It is faster than CPU registers.
B. It is an additional physical RAM chip.
C. It uses storage space and is slower than physical RAM.
D. It is stored only in ROM.
Which storage device has rotating magnetic platters?
A. SSD
B. USB flash drive
C. HDD
D. DVD
Which statement correctly compares an SSD with an HDD?
A. An SSD has more moving mechanical parts.
B. An HDD is always faster than an SSD.
C. An SSD normally has no moving mechanical parts.
D. An SSD uses magnetic tape.
Which of the following is system software?
A. Operating system
B. Presentation created by a student
C. Printed report
D. Digital photograph
Which of the following is application software?
A. Device driver
B. BIOS firmware
C. Word processor
D. Boot loader
Which software is mainly used to detect and remove malicious programs?
A. Compiler
B. Antivirus utility
C. Word processor
D. Assembler
Which translator converts assembly language into machine or object code?
A. Compiler
B. Interpreter
C. Assembler
D. Loader
In the standard examination model, which statement best describes a compiler?
A. It translates only assembly-language mnemonics.
B. It translates the complete high-level program as a unit.
C. It is a physical part of the CPU.
D. It only loads a program into RAM.
In the standard examination model, an interpreter:
A. Converts assembly language only
B. Translates and executes source instructions during runtime
C. Manufactures ROM chips
D. Produces printed output
What is the main function of a linker?
A. To scan printed documents
B. To combine object files and required libraries
C. To control the mouse pointer
D. To refresh DRAM
What is the main function of a loader?
A. It places an executable program into main memory for execution.
B. It converts high-level language into assembly language only.
C. It creates a backup of a hard disk.
D. It reads a barcode.
Which description best defines firmware?
A. A physical storage cable
B. Low-level software embedded in a hardware device
C. A printed user manual
D. A temporary file stored only in RAM
BIOS stands for:
A. Binary Input Operating Software
B. Basic Input/Output System
C. Basic Internal Optical Storage
D. Binary Integrated Output Service
Which sequence is correct during a simplified computer startup?
A. Operating system loads first, and then power is switched on.
B. BIOS or UEFI initializes hardware before the operating system is loaded.
C. The printer loads the operating system into ROM.
D. RAM permanently stores the operating system after shutdown.
| Question | Answer | Question | Answer |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | B | 21 | C |
| 2 | C | 22 | C |
| 3 | C | 23 | A |
| 4 | D | 24 | B |
| 5 | C | 25 | C |
| 6 | A | 26 | B |
| 7 | D | 27 | C |
| 8 | B | 28 | C |
| 9 | C | 29 | C |
| 10 | B | 30 | A |
| 11 | A | 31 | C |
| 12 | B | 32 | B |
| 13 | C | 33 | C |
| 14 | B | 34 | B |
| 15 | C | 35 | B |
| 16 | B | 36 | B |
| 17 |
Complete these tasks without looking at the notes.
Write the missing technology:
| Generation | Technology |
|---|---|
| First | ____________________ |
| Second | ____________________ |
| Third | ____________________ |
| Fourth | ____________________ |
| Fifth | ____________________ |
| Generation | Technology |
|---|---|
| First | Vacuum tubes |
| Second | Transistors |
| Third | Integrated circuits |
| Fourth | Microprocessors and VLSI |
| Fifth | Artificial intelligence and advanced parallel processing |
Identify the correct device:
Arrange the following from fastest to slowest:
Register → Cache → RAM → HDD
Classify each as volatile or non-volatile:
| Memory | Classification |
|---|---|
| SRAM | ____________________ |
| DRAM | ____________________ |
| ROM | ____________________ |
| SSD | ____________________ |
| Cache | ____________________ |
| HDD | ____________________ |
| Memory | Classification |
|---|---|
| SRAM | Volatile |
| DRAM | Volatile |
| ROM | Non-volatile |
| SSD | Non-volatile |
| Cache | Volatile |
| HDD | Non-volatile |
Read the five generations carefully.
Recreate the generation table from memory.
Memorize the sequence:
Vacuum tubes → Transistors → ICs → Microprocessors → AI
Compare microcomputer, minicomputer, mainframe, and supercomputer.
Explain mainframe vs supercomputer aloud.
Study the function of every input device.
Give special attention to OMR, OCR, and MICR.
Create this three-line memory card:
Revise scanner, light pen, barcode reader, keyboard, and mouse.
Identify input devices around you.
Close the notes and answer these questions aloud:
If you cannot answer a question clearly, revise that section once more.
Use your score from the 40 MCQs.
| Correct Answers | Current Level | Action |
|---|---|---|
| 36–40 | Excellent | Revise the quick sheet tomorrow |
| 31–35 | Good | Review incorrect topics once |
| 25–30 | Developing | Revise memory and devices carefully |
| 16–24 | Weak foundation | Read the complete material again |
| 0–15 | Beginning stage | Study one section at a time and retest |
A high score is useful, but understanding your mistakes is more important than memorizing the answer letters.
| Digital Versatile Disc |
| QR | Quick Response |
| CAD | Computer-Aided Design |
| AI | Artificial Intelligence |
| NLP | Natural Language Processing |
| GIGO | Garbage In, Garbage Out |
| D |
| 37 |
| A |
| 18 | B | 38 | B |
| 19 | B | 39 | B |
| 20 | B | 40 | B |