# DAY 14 — SAD, IoT, Web Technology, MS Office and Pedagogy — Complete Study Material > **Phase 1: Technical Theory | Date: 3 August 2026 | Subjects: System Analysis and Design + IoT/Web Technology + MS Office + Pedagogy | Questions in Exam: Approximately 8 + 4 + 9 + 4 = 25** --- ## 📌 Day Overview — What We Will Master Today Day 14 completes Phase 1 technical theory. It covers several independent but important subjects. | Hour | Topic | Main Target | |---:|---|---| | 1 | SAD: SDLC phases, models, DFD and UML | Understand how software systems are planned, designed and represented | | 2 | Testing, coupling, cohesion and implementation strategies | Understand software quality and system conversion | | 3 | IoT and Web Technology | Learn HTML, CSS, JavaScript, PHP, XML, e-commerce and IoT architecture | | 4 | MS Office | Master Word, Excel, PowerPoint and Access concepts and shortcuts | | 5 | Pedagogy | Understand teaching methods, Bloom’s Taxonomy, learning theories, evaluation and ICT | ### Learning Outcomes After completing this material, you will be able to: 1. Name and explain every major SDLC phase. 2. Compare Waterfall, V-Model, Spiral, RAD and Agile. 3. Identify DFD symbols and levels. 4. Apply DFD balancing and construction rules. 5. Identify important UML diagrams. 6. Differentiate unit, integration, system and acceptance testing. 7. Compare black-box and white-box testing. 8. Explain coupling and cohesion. 9. Compare direct, parallel, pilot and phased implementation. 10. Recognize important HTML tags and attributes. 11. Differentiate inline, internal and external CSS. 12. Explain basic JavaScript and PHP concepts. 13. Compare HTML and XML. 14. Identify B2B, B2C, C2C, C2B and government-related e-commerce models. 15. Explain IoT components and architecture. 16. Understand Word features such as Mail Merge and Track Changes. 17. Use Excel functions, formulas, cell references and PivotTables. 18. Understand PowerPoint animations, transitions and views. 19. Understand Access tables, forms, queries and reports. 20. Recall more than 30 important MS Office shortcuts. 21. Compare teacher-centred and learner-centred teaching methods. 22. Name Bloom’s six revised cognitive levels. 23. Explain major learning theories. 24. Differentiate diagnostic, formative and summative evaluation. 25. Explain the role of ICT in education. --- # 1. System Analysis and Design ## 1.1 What Is a System? A **system** is a group of related components that work together to achieve a common objective. Examples: - School management system - Banking system - Railway reservation system - Hospital management system - Examination system A basic system has: Input → Processing → Output It may also include: - Feedback - Control - Boundary - Environment ### Example: Examination System Input: Student details and answers Processing: Check answers and calculate marks Output: Result and mark sheet Feedback: Error report or performance analysis --- ## 1.2 System Components ### Input Data or resources entered into a system. ### Processing Operations performed on the input. ### Output The result produced by the system. ### Feedback Information about performance returned to the system. ### Control Rules that guide and regulate the system. ### Boundary The limit that separates the system from its environment. ### Environment Everything outside the system that can affect it. ### Interface A point where two components or systems interact. --- ## 1.3 What Is System Analysis? **System analysis** is the study of an existing or proposed system to understand: - Problems - Requirements - Processes - Data - Users - Possible solutions The main question is: What must the system do? A **system analyst** studies user needs and prepares system requirements. --- ## 1.4 What Is System Design? **System design** converts requirements into a plan for constructing the system. It decides: - System architecture - Database design - User interface - Input and output design - Program modules - Security controls - Hardware and software requirements The main question is: How will the system do it? ### Analysis vs Design | System Analysis | System Design | |---|---| | Studies the problem | Plans the solution | | Focuses on what is required | Focuses on how to implement it | | Produces requirements | Produces design specifications | | User-oriented | Technical and implementation-oriented | --- ## 1.5 What Is SDLC? SDLC stands for **System Development Life Cycle** or **Software Development Life Cycle**. It is a structured process used to develop and maintain an information system. A common SDLC flow is: Planning | v Feasibility Study | v Requirements Analysis | v System Design | v Development/Coding | v Testing | v Implementation | v Maintenance Different books may combine or rename some phases, but the main work remains similar. --- # 1A. SDLC Phases ## 1.6 Planning and Preliminary Investigation This phase identifies: - Existing problem - Project objectives - Project scope - Expected benefits - Major risks - Required resources - Initial time and cost ### Scope **Scope** defines what the project will and will not include. Poorly controlled growth in requirements is called **scope creep**. ### Output Possible outputs include: - Project proposal - Initial project plan - Problem statement - Scope statement --- ## 1.7 Feasibility Study A **feasibility study** determines whether the proposed system is practical and worth developing. Important feasibility types can be remembered using: **TELOS** - Technical - Economic - Legal - Operational - Schedule ### Technical Feasibility Checks whether the required technology, skills and infrastructure are available. Questions: - Is suitable hardware available? - Can the software be developed? - Does the organization have trained staff? ### Economic Feasibility Checks whether benefits justify costs. Costs may include: - Hardware - Software - Development - Training - Maintenance - Data conversion Benefits may include: - Faster work - Fewer errors - Reduced labour - Better decisions - Improved service ### Legal Feasibility Checks compliance with: - Laws - Licences - Contracts - Privacy obligations - Intellectual-property rules ### Operational Feasibility Checks whether the system will work in the organization and be accepted by users. Questions: - Will employees use it? - Does it solve the real problem? - Can current work procedures support it? ### Schedule Feasibility Checks whether the project can be completed within the required time. ### Additional Feasibility Areas Some projects also examine: - Organizational feasibility - Social feasibility - Environmental feasibility --- ## 1.8 Requirements Analysis A **requirement** is a capability or condition the system must satisfy. During requirements analysis, the team: - Interviews users - Observes current work - Studies documents - Uses questionnaires - Identifies data and process requirements - Defines system constraints - Resolves conflicting needs ### Functional Requirements Describe what the system must do. Examples: - The system must register students. - The system must calculate marks. - The system must generate a result report. ### Non-Functional Requirements Describe quality conditions or limitations. Examples: - The page must load within two seconds. - Only authorized users may change marks. - The system must support 5,000 users. - Data must be backed up daily. ### SRS SRS stands for **Software Requirements Specification**. It is a document that clearly records the software requirements. A good SRS should be: - Correct - Complete - Clear - Consistent - Verifiable - Traceable - Unambiguous --- ## 1.9 System Design The design phase creates a technical plan. It may include: - Architecture design - Database design - Input design - Output design - User-interface design - File design - Security design - Module design - Network design ### Logical Design Describes what the system should achieve without focusing on specific technology. ### Physical Design Describes how the system will be implemented using actual: - Hardware - Software - Databases - Networks - Files - Programs --- ## 1.10 Development or Coding Programmers convert the design into working software. Activities include: - Writing source code - Creating databases - Building interfaces - Following coding standards - Performing basic developer tests - Documenting code Good development practices include: - Meaningful names - Modular design - Version control - Code review - Secure coding - Clear documentation --- ## 1.11 Testing Testing checks whether the system: - Meets requirements - Produces correct results - Handles errors - Performs properly - Protects information - Works with other components Testing does not prove that software has no defects. It helps discover defects and build confidence in quality. Testing is explained fully in Section 2. --- ## 1.12 Implementation or Deployment In implementation, the system is installed and made available to users. Activities may include: - Installing hardware and software - Configuring the system - Converting old data - Training users - Preparing manuals - Changing work procedures - Moving from old system to new system Implementation strategies include: - Direct - Parallel - Pilot - Phased --- ## 1.13 Maintenance Maintenance begins after deployment. Four important types are: ### Corrective Maintenance Fixes errors discovered after implementation. Example: Correcting an incorrect fee calculation. ### Adaptive Maintenance Changes the system for a new environment. Examples: - New operating system - New tax law - New hardware - New browser ### Perfective Maintenance Improves performance, usability or features. Example: Adding a faster search option. ### Preventive Maintenance Reduces the chance of future problems. Examples: - Restructuring difficult code - Improving documentation - Updating old components Mnemonic: **CAPP** - Corrective - Adaptive - Perfective - Preventive --- ## 1.14 SDLC Phase Summary | Phase | Main Question | Main Output | |---|---|---| | Planning | Why is the project needed? | Project plan and scope | | Feasibility | Is it practical? | Feasibility report | | Analysis | What must the system do? | SRS | | Design | How will it work? | Design specification | | Development | How is it built? | Program and database | | Testing | Does it work correctly? | Test results | | Implementation | How will users begin using it? | Operational system | | Maintenance | How will it remain useful? | Fixes and improvements | --- # 1B. SDLC Models ## 1.15 What Is an SDLC Model? An **SDLC model** defines how development phases are arranged and performed. Important models: 1. Waterfall 2. V-Model 3. Iterative 4. Incremental 5. Prototyping 6. Spiral 7. RAD 8. Agile The roadmap especially requires: - Waterfall - Spiral - Agile - RAD - V-Model --- ## 1.16 Waterfall Model The Waterfall model follows a mostly sequential flow. Requirements | v Design | v Coding | v Testing | v Implementation | v Maintenance A phase is generally completed before the next phase begins. ### Advantages - Simple to understand - Clear stages and documents - Easy management when requirements are stable - Suitable for predictable projects - Progress can be measured by completed phases ### Disadvantages - Changes are difficult after a phase is completed - Working software appears late - User feedback may arrive late - High risk when requirements are unclear - Testing occurs relatively late ### Suitable When - Requirements are clear - Technology is familiar - Changes are unlikely - Strong documentation is required ### Memory Point Waterfall = One main direction, like water flowing downward --- ## 1.17 V-Model The V-Model is an extension of the Waterfall model. Each development phase has a corresponding testing phase. Diagram: Requirements Analysis Acceptance Testing \ / \ / System Design System Testing \ / \ / Architecture Design Integration Testing \ / \ / Module Design Unit Testing \ / \ / Coding ### Relationships | Development Stage | Related Testing Stage | |---|---| | Requirements | Acceptance testing | | System design | System testing | | Architecture or high-level design | Integration testing | | Module or low-level design | Unit testing | ### Advantages - Testing is planned early - Clear relationship between development and testing - Simple and disciplined - Suitable for stable requirements ### Disadvantages - Rigid - Changes are difficult - Working software appears late - Not ideal for unclear requirements ### Memory Point V-Model = Verification on the left, validation on the right ### Verification Checks whether work products are created correctly. Question: Are we building the product right? ### Validation Checks whether the final product meets user needs. Question: Are we building the right product? --- ## 1.18 Iterative Model The Iterative model develops the system through repeated cycles. Each cycle improves the previous version. Plan → Design → Build → Test ^ | |_______________________| ### Advantages - Early version becomes available - Feedback can guide improvement - Risks are discovered earlier - Changes are easier than in Waterfall ### Disadvantages - Requires careful planning - Repeated changes can increase cost - Architecture may weaken without control --- ## 1.19 Incremental Model The Incremental model develops and delivers the system in parts called increments. Example: Increment 1: User registration Increment 2: Attendance Increment 3: Examination Increment 4: Reports Each increment adds working features. ### Iterative vs Incremental | Iterative | Incremental | |---|---| | Improves the same solution repeatedly | Adds new functional parts | | Focuses on refinement | Focuses on feature growth | | Repeated versions | Successive feature deliveries | A project can be both iterative and incremental. --- ## 1.20 Prototyping Model A **prototype** is an early, simplified model of a system. Process: Initial Requirements | v Build Prototype | v User Evaluation | v Refine Requirements | v Develop Final System ### Advantages - Helps clarify unclear requirements - Encourages user participation - Improves interface design - Finds misunderstandings early ### Disadvantages - Users may think the prototype is the final system - Quick design may become poor permanent design - Repeated changes can increase cost - Documentation may be neglected ### Types - Throwaway prototype: discarded after requirements become clear - Evolutionary prototype: gradually developed into the final system --- ## 1.21 Spiral Model The Spiral model is a risk-driven, iterative model. Each cycle of the spiral includes: 1. Set objectives 2. Identify and analyse risks 3. Develop and test 4. Plan the next cycle Diagram: Objectives and Planning | v Risk Analysis | v Development and Testing | v Customer Evaluation | v Next Spiral Cycle ### Main Feature Risk analysis is the central feature. ### Advantages - Strong risk management - Suitable for large, complex projects - Supports changing requirements - Repeated customer feedback - Prototypes can be used ### Disadvantages - Expensive - Complex to manage - Requires risk-analysis expertise - Not suitable for small, low-risk projects ### Suitable When - Project is large - Risk is high - Technology is new - Requirements may change - Failure would be costly ### Memory Point Spiral = Repeated cycles with risk analysis --- ## 1.22 RAD Model RAD stands for **Rapid Application Development**. It focuses on fast development using: - Prototyping - Reusable components - User participation - Development tools - Time-boxed work - Parallel development A **time box** is a fixed period in which a set of work must be completed. Typical flow: Requirements Planning | v User Design | v Construction | v Cutover ### Advantages - Fast development - Frequent user feedback - Early working components - Reuse can reduce effort - Suitable for modular systems ### Disadvantages - Requires skilled developers - Needs active user involvement - Not suitable for every large or high-risk system - Difficult if the system cannot be divided into modules - May require expensive tools ### Suitable When - Deadline is short - Users are available - Requirements are reasonably understood - System can be modularized ### Memory Point RAD = Rapid development through prototypes, tools and user feedback --- ## 1.23 Agile Model Agile develops software in short, repeated cycles. The team delivers small working parts frequently and adapts to feedback. A short development cycle is often called an **iteration** or **sprint**. Simplified Agile cycle: Select Work | v Design and Build | v Test | v Deliver Working Increment | v Collect Feedback | v Next Cycle ### Agile Values Agile gives importance to: - Individuals and interactions - Working software - Customer collaboration - Responding to change This does not mean that processes, documentation, contracts and plans have no value. It means Agile values the items on the first side more strongly when trade-offs are required. ### Advantages - Welcomes changing requirements - Delivers working software early - Frequent customer feedback - Problems are found earlier - Good visibility of progress - Continuous improvement ### Disadvantages - Requires active customer participation - Scope and cost may be difficult to predict - Requires disciplined teamwork - Documentation may suffer if neglected - Not every project or contract fits Agile easily ### Common Agile Methods - Scrum - Kanban - Extreme Programming --- ## 1.24 Scrum Basics Scrum is a popular Agile framework. ### Product Backlog A prioritized list of desired work. ### Sprint A fixed, short development period. ### Sprint Backlog Work selected for the current sprint. ### Product Increment Working output produced by a sprint. ### Scrum Roles - Product Owner - Scrum Master - Developers ### Daily Scrum A short daily coordination event for developers. --- ## 1.25 SDLC Model Comparison | Model | Main Characteristic | Best When | Main Limitation | |---|---|---|---| | Waterfall | Sequential phases | Requirements are stable | Change is difficult | | V-Model | Development phase matched with testing | Stable and test-focused project | Rigid | | Prototyping | Early model for feedback | Requirements are unclear | Prototype may be misused | | Spiral | Risk-driven cycles | Large, high-risk project | Expensive and complex | | RAD | Fast, tool-assisted development | Short deadline and modular system | Needs skilled team and users | | Agile | Short iterative deliveries | Requirements change frequently | Needs continuous collaboration | ### Fast Exam Identification - Sequential and document-heavy → Waterfall - Testing matched to each development phase → V-Model - Risk analysis in every cycle → Spiral - Fast prototyping and reusable components → RAD - Short iterations and frequent delivery → Agile - Early sample for requirement clarification → Prototyping --- # 1C. Data Flow Diagrams ## 1.26 What Is a DFD? DFD stands for **Data Flow Diagram**. A DFD shows how data moves through a system. It represents: - External entities - Processes - Data flows - Data stores A DFD focuses on: What data enters? How is it processed? Where is it stored? What data leaves? A DFD does not mainly show program-control flow or hardware arrangement. --- ## 1.27 DFD Symbols Two common notation styles are: - Yourdon and DeMarco - Gane and Sarson The basic meanings remain the same. ### External Entity Represents a person, organization or external system that sends or receives data. Symbol: +----------------+ | STUDENT | +----------------+ Other names: - Source - Sink - Terminator ### Process Transforms input data into output data. Symbol: (1.0) (REGISTER) ( STUDENT ) A process name should usually contain a verb. Examples: - Register Student - Calculate Result - Process Payment ### Data Flow Shows movement of data. Symbol: Student Details ----------------------> A data-flow name is usually a noun. Examples: - Student Details - Payment Information - Result Data ### Data Store Represents stored data. Symbol: || D1 Student Records || Examples: - Student Database - Employee File - Result Store --- ## 1.28 DFD Symbol Summary | DFD Element | Meaning | Good Naming Style | |---|---|---| | External entity | Source or destination outside system | Noun | | Process | Transforms data | Verb phrase | | Data flow | Data moving between elements | Noun | | Data store | Stored information | Noun | --- ## 1.29 Context Diagram A **context diagram** presents the entire system as one process. It shows: - One system process - External entities - Major data flows It normally does not show internal processes or detailed data stores. Example: +---------+ Student Details +------------------+ | STUDENT | --------------------------> | | | | <-------------------------- | SCHOOL SYSTEM | +---------+ Result | Process 0 | +------------------+ ^ | Result Approval | +---------------+ | EXAMINATION | | DEPARTMENT | +---------------+ The complete School System is shown as Process 0. --- ## 1.30 Level 0 DFD In many textbooks, the first decomposition of the context diagram is called the **Level 0 DFD**. It breaks the complete system into major processes. Example: 1.0 Register Student 2.0 Record Marks 3.0 Calculate Result 4.0 Generate Report A possible simplified diagram: STUDENT | | Student Details v (1.0 REGISTER STUDENT) ------> || D1 STUDENT FILE || TEACHER | | Marks v (2.0 RECORD MARKS) ----------> || D2 MARKS FILE || | v (3.0 CALCULATE RESULT) | v (4.0 GENERATE REPORT) | v STUDENT Note: Some books call the single-process context diagram “Level 0” and the first decomposition “Level 1.” Always follow the naming convention used in the question. The decomposition idea is more important than the label. --- ## 1.31 Level 1 and Lower-Level DFDs A Level 1 DFD provides more detail about a major process. For example, Process 2.0 may be divided into: 2.1 Validate Student ID 2.2 Enter Subject Marks 2.3 Check Marks Range 2.4 Store Marks A Level 2 DFD gives still more detail about a Level 1 process. General idea: Context Diagram | v Major Processes | v Detailed Subprocesses | v More Detailed Subprocesses This is called **functional decomposition**. --- ## 1.32 DFD Balancing **Balancing** means that data entering and leaving a process at a higher level must remain consistent when that process is decomposed. Example: If Process 2.0 receives: Marks Data and produces: Validated Marks then its lower-level diagram must collectively receive and produce the same external flows. A lower level may add internal data flows and stores, but it should not invent unexplained external input or output. --- ## 1.33 Important DFD Rules ### Rule 1: Every Process Needs Input and Output A valid process normally has at least: - One input - One output ### Rule 2: No Direct External Entity to External Entity Flow Invalid: STUDENT ----------------> BANK If the flow belongs to the system, it should pass through a process. ### Rule 3: No Direct External Entity to Data Store Flow Invalid: STUDENT ----------------> || STUDENT FILE || Correct idea: STUDENT → Process → STUDENT FILE ### Rule 4: No Direct Data Store to Data Store Flow Invalid: || STORE A || ----------> || STORE B || Data should pass through a process. ### Rule 5: Process Names Should Describe Actions Good: Calculate Salary Poor: Salary ### Rule 6: Data-Flow Names Should Describe Data Good: Employee Details Poor: Process Details --- ## 1.34 Common DFD Errors ### Black Hole A process has input but no output. Data ----> (PROCESS) The process appears to swallow all data. ### Miracle A process produces output without receiving input. (PROCESS) ----> Output The output appears magically. ### Grey Hole A process produces output that cannot logically be created from the stated input. Example: Student Name → Calculate Complete Annual Result A name alone is insufficient to calculate the complete result. --- ## 1.35 DFD vs Flowchart | DFD | Flowchart | |---|---| | Shows data movement | Shows sequence and control flow | | Focuses on processes and data | Focuses on algorithm steps | | Uses entities, processes, stores and flows | Uses start, decision, process and input/output symbols | | Does not normally show detailed decisions | Often shows decisions and loops | | Used in system analysis | Used in program and process logic | --- # 1D. UML Diagrams ## 1.36 What Is UML? UML stands for **Unified Modeling Language**. It is a standard visual language used to model software systems. UML helps teams: - Visualize a system - Specify structure and behaviour - Communicate design - Document software UML is a modeling language, not a programming language. --- ## 1.37 UML Diagram Categories UML diagrams are broadly divided into: 1. Structural diagrams 2. Behavioural diagrams ### Structural Diagrams Show the static structure of a system. Important examples: - Class diagram - Object diagram - Component diagram - Deployment diagram - Package diagram ### Behavioural Diagrams Show how a system behaves over time. Important examples: - Use-case diagram - Activity diagram - State-machine diagram - Sequence diagram - Communication diagram Sequence and communication diagrams are also called interaction diagrams. --- ## 1.38 Use-Case Diagram A use-case diagram shows: - Actors - System functions - Relationships ### Actor An external person, role or system that interacts with the system. Symbol: O /|\ / \ Student ### Use Case A function or service provided by the system. Symbol: (View Result) Example: +----------------------------+ | SCHOOL SYSTEM | Student ---->| (Register for Examination) | Student ---->| (View Result) | Teacher ---->| (Enter Marks) | +----------------------------+ ### Relationships - Association - Include - Extend - Generalization ### Include One use case always uses another common function. Example: Place Order includes Validate Payment ### Extend Optional or conditional behaviour extends a basic use case. Example: Apply Discount extends Calculate Bill --- ## 1.39 Class Diagram A class diagram shows: - Classes - Attributes - Methods - Relationships Example: +-------------------------+ | Student | +-------------------------+ | -studentId: Integer | | -name: String | | -marks: Number | +-------------------------+ | +register() | | +viewResult() | +-------------------------+ ### Class Relationships - Association - Aggregation - Composition - Inheritance - Dependency ### Inheritance Represents an “is-a” relationship. Example: Teacher is a Person. ### Aggregation A weak whole-part relationship. The part can exist independently. Example: Department has Teachers. ### Composition A strong whole-part relationship. The part’s lifecycle strongly depends on the whole. Example: House contains Rooms. --- ## 1.40 Object Diagram An object diagram shows specific object instances at a particular time. Class: Student Object: student1: Student name = "Asha" marks = 85 A class is a blueprint. An object is an instance of that class. --- ## 1.41 Sequence Diagram A sequence diagram shows messages exchanged between objects in time order. Time moves from top to bottom. Example: Student Web Page Result Service Database | | | | |--Request---->| | | | |--Get Result--->| | | | |--Query---------->| | | |<--Result---------| | |<--Display Data-| | |<--Result-----| | | Main elements: - Actor or object - Lifeline - Activation - Message - Return message Use sequence diagrams when the order of interactions is important. --- ## 1.42 Activity Diagram An activity diagram shows workflow. It is similar to a flowchart but is part of UML. Example: [Start] | v Enter Login Details | v | Yes | No v v Open Dashboard Show Error | | v | [End] <--------------+ Activity diagrams can show: - Decisions - Parallel activities - Start and end - Workflow steps --- ## 1.43 State-Machine Diagram A state-machine diagram shows how an object changes state after events. Example: Online order New | v Confirmed | v Shipped | v Delivered Alternative transition: New or Confirmed → Cancelled Useful for objects whose behaviour depends on current state. --- ## 1.44 Component Diagram A component diagram shows major software components and their dependencies. Example: [Web Interface] | v [Result Service] | v [Database Component] It is useful for high-level software architecture. --- ## 1.45 Deployment Diagram A deployment diagram shows how software is placed on physical or virtual hardware nodes. Example: +-------------------+ | Client Computer | | Web Browser | +-------------------+ | v +-------------------+ | Application Server| | School Application| +-------------------+ | v +-------------------+ | Database Server | | Student Database | +-------------------+ It represents: - Devices - Servers - Execution environments - Network connections - Deployed software --- ## 1.46 Important UML Diagram Summary | Diagram | Main Purpose | |---|---| | Use-case | User roles and system functions | | Class | Classes, attributes, methods and relationships | | Object | Object instances at a particular time | | Sequence | Time-ordered messages | | Activity | Workflow and decisions | | State-machine | State changes caused by events | | Component | Software components and dependencies | | Deployment | Software placement on hardware nodes | ### Fast Identification - Actors and system functions → Use-case - Attributes and methods → Class - Messages arranged over time → Sequence - Workflow and decisions → Activity - Object states → State-machine - Software modules → Component - Hardware nodes and installed software → Deployment --- # 2. Software Testing, Coupling, Cohesion and Implementation ## 2.1 Error, Defect and Failure ### Error A human mistake made during development. Example: A programmer misunderstands a formula. ### Defect or Bug A flaw introduced into software. Example: The program contains the wrong formula. ### Failure The observable incorrect behaviour when the defect is executed. Example: The system displays an incorrect total. Flow: Human Error → Software Defect → Possible Failure --- ## 2.2 Verification vs Validation ### Verification Checks documents, designs and code without necessarily executing the complete software. Question: Are we building the product right? Examples: - Review - Inspection - Walkthrough - Static analysis ### Validation Checks whether the working product meets user needs. Question: Are we building the right product? Examples: - Executing test cases - User acceptance testing - System testing --- ## 2.3 Static vs Dynamic Testing ### Static Testing Examines work products without executing the program. Examples: - Review - Inspection - Walkthrough - Static code analysis ### Dynamic Testing Executes the software with test data. Examples: - Unit testing - Integration testing - System testing | Static Testing | Dynamic Testing | |---|---| | No program execution required | Program is executed | | Finds defects in documents and code | Finds failures during execution | | Includes reviews and inspections | Includes test-case execution | --- # 2A. Testing Levels ## 2.4 Unit Testing **Unit testing** checks the smallest testable software component. A unit may be: - Function - Method - Class - Module Usually performed mainly by developers. Example: Test a function that calculates total marks. ### Focus - Internal logic - Boundary values - Local data handling - Error conditions --- ## 2.5 Integration Testing **Integration testing** checks whether combined modules work together correctly. Example: Test whether: - Login module - Student database - Result module exchange data correctly. ### Integration Strategies #### Top-Down Integration Testing begins with high-level modules. Lower modules may be temporarily replaced by **stubs**. A **stub** is a temporary lower-level module used during testing. #### Bottom-Up Integration Testing begins with low-level modules. Higher modules may be temporarily replaced by **drivers**. A **driver** is a temporary calling program used to test a lower-level module. #### Big-Bang Integration All modules are combined at once and tested. Advantages: - Simple for a very small system Disadvantages: - Difficult to locate interface defects - Problems appear late #### Sandwich or Hybrid Integration Combines top-down and bottom-up approaches. --- ## 2.6 System Testing **System testing** checks the complete integrated system. It verifies the complete system against requirements. It may include: - Functional testing - Performance testing - Security testing - Usability testing - Recovery testing - Compatibility testing - Load testing Usually performed in a test environment before acceptance. --- ## 2.7 Acceptance Testing **Acceptance testing** checks whether the system meets business and user needs. It is performed by: - Customer - Client - End users - User representatives It helps decide whether the system should be accepted. ### Alpha Testing Conducted at the developer’s site or controlled environment. The software may be used by internal testers or selected users. ### Beta Testing Conducted by selected real users in real or realistic environments before general release. ### User Acceptance Testing UAT confirms that the system supports required business tasks. --- ## 2.8 Testing Level Order Unit Testing | v Integration Testing | v System Testing | v Acceptance Testing Mnemonic: **UISA** - Unit - Integration - System - Acceptance --- # 2B. Black-Box and White-Box Testing ## 2.9 Black-Box Testing Black-box testing checks external behaviour without requiring knowledge of internal program code. The tester focuses on: - Inputs - Outputs - Requirements - User-visible behaviour Question: For this input, is the output correct? ### Techniques - Equivalence partitioning - Boundary-value analysis - Decision-table testing - State-transition testing - Use-case testing --- ## 2.10 Equivalence Partitioning Input values are divided into groups expected to behave similarly. Example: Valid marks range: 0 to 100 Partitions: - Below 0: invalid - 0 to 100: valid - Above 100: invalid Instead of testing every number, select representatives from each group. Possible tests: -5, 50, 105 --- ## 2.11 Boundary-Value Analysis Defects often occur near boundaries. For a valid range of 0 to 100, useful tests include: -1, 0, 1, 99, 100, 101 These represent: - Just below minimum - Minimum - Just above minimum - Just below maximum - Maximum - Just above maximum --- ## 2.12 White-Box Testing White-box testing checks the internal structure and logic of code. The tester may examine: - Statements - Branches - Conditions - Loops - Paths Other names: - Structural testing - Glass-box testing - Clear-box testing ### Coverage Measures - Statement coverage - Branch coverage - Condition coverage - Path coverage ### Statement Coverage Checks whether each executable statement has run. ### Branch Coverage Checks whether each decision outcome has run. For an if condition, this usually means testing: - True branch - False branch --- ## 2.13 Black-Box vs White-Box | Black-Box Testing | White-Box Testing | |---|---| | Tests external behaviour | Tests internal code structure | | Code knowledge not required | Code knowledge required | | Based on requirements | Based on code and logic | | Checks input and output | Checks paths, branches and statements | | Finds missing or incorrect functions | Finds logical and path errors | | Techniques include boundary testing | Techniques include coverage testing | ### Memory Rule Black box = Cannot see inside White box = Can see internal code --- ## 2.14 Grey-Box Testing Grey-box testing uses partial knowledge of internal design. It combines elements of black-box and white-box testing. Example: A tester knows the database structure but tests through the application interface. --- # 2C. Other Important Testing Types ## 2.15 Regression Testing **Regression testing** checks whether a change has broken previously working features. Performed after: - Bug fix - New feature - Configuration change - Software update Memory point: Regression = Recheck old behaviour after change --- ## 2.16 Smoke Testing **Smoke testing** is a broad, basic test of important functions. Purpose: Is this build stable enough for detailed testing? Example: Check whether: - Application starts - User can log in - Main screens open - Core operation works --- ## 2.17 Sanity Testing **Sanity testing** is a narrow test that checks a specific change or fix. Purpose: Does this particular change work reasonably? ### Smoke vs Sanity | Smoke Testing | Sanity Testing | |---|---| | Broad and shallow | Narrow and focused | | Checks build stability | Checks a specific change | | Often done on a new build | Often done after a small change | --- ## 2.18 Performance Testing Checks system speed, stability and resource use. ### Load Testing Checks performance under expected workload. ### Stress Testing Pushes the system beyond normal capacity. ### Volume Testing Checks behaviour with a large amount of data. ### Endurance Testing Checks performance over an extended period. --- ## 2.19 Security Testing Checks protection against: - Unauthorized access - Weak authentication - Incorrect permissions - Data leakage - Unsafe configuration - Known vulnerabilities Security testing must be authorized. --- ## 2.20 Usability Testing Checks whether the system is: - Easy to learn - Easy to use - Clear - Efficient - Accessible Actual users may participate. --- ## 2.21 Compatibility Testing Checks operation with different: - Browsers - Operating systems - Devices - Screen sizes - Databases - Networks --- # 2D. Coupling and Cohesion ## 2.22 What Is a Module? A **module** is a separate unit of a software system. Examples: - Login module - Payment module - Result module - Report module Good modular design aims for: Low coupling High cohesion --- ## 2.23 What Is Coupling? **Coupling** measures the dependency between modules. High coupling means modules depend heavily on one another. Low coupling means modules are relatively independent. ### Why Low Coupling Is Preferred Low coupling makes software: - Easier to modify - Easier to test - Easier to reuse - Easier to understand - Less likely to suffer widespread failure after a change --- ## 2.24 Coupling Types Listed approximately from strongest or worst to weakest or better: 1. Content coupling 2. Common coupling 3. External coupling 4. Control coupling 5. Stamp coupling 6. Data coupling 7. Message coupling ### Content Coupling One module directly uses or modifies the internal workings of another. This is very strong and undesirable. ### Common Coupling Several modules share global data. A change in shared data can affect many modules. ### External Coupling Modules depend on an external format, protocol or device interface. ### Control Coupling One module passes control information that tells another module what logic to execute. Example: processReport(mode) where mode controls internal behaviour. ### Stamp Coupling A complete data structure is passed even though the receiving module needs only part of it. Example: Passing an entire Student record when only student ID is needed. ### Data Coupling Modules communicate by passing only the data that is required. This is desirable. ### Message Coupling Modules communicate through messages or public interfaces without sharing internal data. This is very loose coupling. --- ## 2.25 What Is Cohesion? **Cohesion** measures how strongly the tasks inside one module are related. High cohesion means a module has one clear, focused responsibility. Low cohesion means unrelated tasks are placed together. ### Why High Cohesion Is Preferred High cohesion makes modules: - Easier to understand - Easier to test - Easier to maintain - Easier to reuse - Less error-prone --- ## 2.26 Cohesion Types Listed from weakest or worst to strongest or best: 1. Coincidental cohesion 2. Logical cohesion 3. Temporal cohesion 4. Procedural cohesion 5. Communicational cohesion 6. Sequential cohesion 7. Functional cohesion ### Coincidental Cohesion Unrelated tasks are grouped together without a meaningful reason. Worst basic form. ### Logical Cohesion Similar categories of tasks are grouped, and a control value chooses which task to perform. Example: One module handles all input operations. ### Temporal Cohesion Tasks are grouped because they occur at the same time. Example: System-startup tasks. ### Procedural Cohesion Tasks are grouped because they follow a sequence, even if they work on different data. ### Communicational Cohesion Tasks are grouped because they use the same data. ### Sequential Cohesion Output from one part becomes input to the next part. ### Functional Cohesion Every part contributes to one well-defined function. Best basic form. Example: A module whose only responsibility is calculating a student’s total marks. --- ## 2.27 Coupling vs Cohesion | Coupling | Cohesion | |---|---| | Relationship between modules | Relationship within a module | | Measures interdependence | Measures internal focus | | Low coupling is preferred | High cohesion is preferred | | Too much dependency is bad | Strong relatedness is good | ### Golden Rule Good software design = Low Coupling + High Cohesion --- # 2E. System Implementation Strategies ## 2.28 What Is System Conversion? **System conversion** is the process of replacing an old system with a new system. Four important strategies: 1. Direct 2. Parallel 3. Pilot 4. Phased --- ## 2.29 Direct Conversion The old system is stopped and the new system begins immediately. Diagram: Old System: ======== STOP New System: START ======== Other name: - Big-bang conversion - Direct cutover ### Advantages - Fast - Low operating cost - No need to run both systems - Immediate transition ### Disadvantages - Highest risk - Difficult to return if the new system fails - Requires strong preparation and testing ### Suitable When - System is small - Old system cannot continue - New system is well tested - Failure risk is acceptable --- ## 2.30 Parallel Conversion Old and new systems operate together for a period. Diagram: Old System: =================== STOP New System: =========================== Outputs can be compared. ### Advantages - Safest approach - Old system remains available - Results can be compared - Easier recovery if new system fails ### Disadvantages - Expensive - Duplicate work - More staff effort - Data may need to be entered twice ### Memory Point Parallel = Old and new run together --- ## 2.31 Pilot Conversion The new system is introduced first in one selected location or department. Example: A school system is first introduced in one school before being installed across the district. Diagram: Pilot Location → Evaluate → Correct → Other Locations ### Advantages - Limits risk to one location - Real user feedback - Problems can be fixed before full rollout - Suitable for multi-location organizations ### Disadvantages - Complete implementation takes longer - Pilot location may not represent every location - Different sites temporarily use different systems --- ## 2.32 Phased Conversion The new system is introduced in stages. Example: Phase 1: Student registration Phase 2: Attendance Phase 3: Examination Phase 4: Reports ### Advantages - Lower risk than direct conversion - Users learn gradually - Problems are limited to one phase - Workload is distributed ### Disadvantages - Takes longer - Old and new components may need temporary integration - Planning is complex --- ## 2.33 Implementation Strategy Comparison | Strategy | Main Idea | Risk | Cost | Speed | |---|---|---:|---:|---:| | Direct | Stop old; start new | Highest | Low/Medium | Fast | | Parallel | Run both together | Lowest | Highest | Medium | | Pilot | Start at one location | Medium/Low | Medium | Medium | | Phased | Introduce modules gradually | Medium/Low | Medium | Slow | ### Fast Identification - One-day complete replacement → Direct - Old and new together → Parallel - One branch first → Pilot - One module at a time → Phased --- # 3. IoT and Web Technology # 3A. Web Basics ## 3.1 Internet vs World Wide Web ### Internet The Internet is the global infrastructure that connects networks. ### World Wide Web The World Wide Web is a service that uses the Internet to provide linked pages and resources. The Web commonly uses: - HTTP - HTTPS - Web browsers - Web servers - URLs The Internet is broader than the Web. Other Internet services include: - Email - File transfer - Voice communication - Online gaming --- ## 3.2 Website and Web Page ### Web Page A single document available through the Web. ### Website A collection of related web pages under a common domain. ### Home Page The main introductory page of a website. ### Web Browser Software used to request and display web content. Examples: - Google Chrome - Mozilla Firefox - Microsoft Edge - Safari ### Web Server A system that stores or generates web content and responds to requests. --- ## 3.3 URL URL stands for **Uniform Resource Locator**. A URL identifies the location of a web resource. Example: https://www.example.com:443/results/index.html?year=2026#top Parts: | Part | Meaning | |---|---| | `https` | Protocol or scheme | | `www.example.com` | Host or domain | | `443` | Port | | `/results/index.html` | Path | | `?year=2026` | Query string | | `#top` | Fragment | --- ## 3.4 Static vs Dynamic Web Page ### Static Web Page Usually delivered as stored content. Characteristics: - Same basic content for users until edited - Simple - Fast - Commonly built with HTML and CSS ### Dynamic Web Page Content may be generated or changed based on: - User input - Database data - Login status - Time - Application logic Technologies may include: - JavaScript - PHP - Databases - Server frameworks --- ## 3.5 Client-Side vs Server-Side ### Client-Side Runs mainly in the user’s browser. Examples: - HTML - CSS - JavaScript ### Server-Side Runs on the web server. Examples: - PHP - Server-side JavaScript - Python web applications - Java server applications | Client-Side | Server-Side | |---|---| | Runs in browser | Runs on server | | Handles display and interaction | Handles database and business logic | | Code may be visible to user | Source code normally remains on server | | Example: JavaScript | Example: PHP | --- # 3B. HTML ## 3.6 What Is HTML? HTML stands for **HyperText Markup Language**. It provides the structure and meaning of web content. HTML is a markup language, not a general-purpose programming language. HTML uses **tags** and **elements**. Example:

This is a paragraph.

Here: - `

` is the opening tag. - `

` is the closing tag. - Complete structure is a paragraph element. --- ## 3.7 Basic HTML Document Structure School Website

Welcome

This is the school website.

### Explanation - `` declares an HTML5 document. - `` is the root element. - `` contains metadata. - `` sets the browser-tab title. - `<body>` contains visible page content. - `<h1>` creates a main heading. - `<p>` creates a paragraph. --- ## 3.8 Important HTML Tags | Tag | Purpose | |---|---| | `<html>` | Root HTML element | | `<head>` | Metadata container | | `<title>` | Browser-tab title | | `<body>` | Visible page content | | `<h1>` to `<h6>` | Headings | | `<p>` | Paragraph | | `<br>` | Line break | | `<hr>` | Thematic horizontal break | | `<a>` | Hyperlink | | `<img>` | Image | | `<ul>` | Unordered list | | `<ol>` | Ordered list | | `<li>` | List item | | `<table>` | Table | | `<tr>` | Table row | | `<th>` | Header cell | | `<td>` | Data cell | | `<form>` | Form | | `<input>` | Input control | | `<label>` | Label for a control | | `<select>` | Drop-down list | | `<option>` | Drop-down option | | `<textarea>` | Multi-line input | | `<button>` | Button | | `<div>` | Generic block container | | `<span>` | Generic inline container | | `<header>` | Introductory header area | | `<nav>` | Navigation area | | `<main>` | Main content | | `<section>` | Thematic section | | `<article>` | Independent content | | `<footer>` | Footer area | This list covers more than the required 10 important tags. --- ## 3.9 HTML Attributes An **attribute** provides additional information about an element. Example: <a href="https://example.com">Visit Website</a> Here: - `href` is the attribute. - It gives the link destination. Image example: <img src="school.jpg" alt="School building"> Important image attributes: - `src`: image location - `alt`: alternative text The `alt` text supports accessibility and appears when the image cannot be displayed. --- ## 3.10 Headings and Paragraphs HTML provides six heading levels: <h1>Main Heading</h1> <h2>Second-Level Heading</h2> <h3>Third-Level Heading</h3> `<h1>` is the highest level. Paragraph: <p>This is a paragraph.</p> Use heading levels according to document structure, not only visual size. --- ## 3.11 Links Example: <a href="https://example.com">Open Example</a> Open in a new browsing context: <a href="https://example.com" target="_blank">Open Example</a> Internal page fragment: <a href="#results">Go to Results</a> --- ## 3.12 Lists ### Unordered List <ul> <li>Computer</li> <li>Printer</li> <li>Router</li> </ul> Usually displayed with bullets. ### Ordered List <ol> <li>Register</li> <li>Login</li> <li>View Result</li> </ol> Usually displayed with numbers. --- ## 3.13 Tables <table> <tr> <th>Name</th> <th>Marks</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Asha</td> <td>85</td> </tr> </table> Important tags: - `<table>`: complete table - `<tr>`: row - `<th>`: header cell - `<td>`: data cell --- ## 3.14 Forms Forms collect user input. Example: <form action="/submit" method="post"> <label for="name">Name:</label> <input type="text" id="name" name="studentName"> <button type="submit">Submit</button> </form> Important form concepts: - `action`: server destination - `method`: submission method - `name`: identifies submitted field data - `id`: identifies an element and connects labels Common input types: - text - password - email - number - date - radio - checkbox - file - submit --- ## 3.15 GET vs POST ### GET - Sends form data in the URL query string - Suitable for retrieving or searching - Can be bookmarked - Not suitable for sensitive information - URL length is limited in practice ### POST - Sends data in the request body - Suitable for creating or changing data - Supports larger submissions - Does not display submitted fields in the URL Important: POST is not automatically encrypted. HTTPS is required to protect data in transit. | GET | POST | |---|---| | Data commonly appears in URL | Data is sent in request body | | Good for retrieval | Good for submission/change | | Can be bookmarked | Normally not bookmarked with form body | | Should be safe and repeatable | May change server data | --- ## 3.16 Semantic HTML Semantic tags clearly describe the purpose of content. Examples: - `<header>` - `<nav>` - `<main>` - `<section>` - `<article>` - `<aside>` - `<footer>` Benefits: - Better accessibility - Clearer structure - Easier maintenance - Better search-engine understanding --- # 3C. CSS ## 3.17 What Is CSS? CSS stands for **Cascading Style Sheets**. CSS controls the presentation of HTML. It can control: - Colour - Font - Spacing - Borders - Alignment - Layout - Responsive design Example rule: p { color: blue; font-size: 18px; } Parts: - `p` is the selector. - `color` is a property. - `blue` is the value. --- ## 3.18 Inline CSS Inline CSS is written inside an element’s `style` attribute. Example: <p style="color: blue;">Hello</p> ### Advantages - Quick for one element - Useful for small testing ### Disadvantages - Difficult to maintain - Repeats styles - Mixes structure and presentation --- ## 3.19 Internal CSS Internal CSS is placed inside a `<style>` element, normally in the document’s `<head>`. Example: <head> <style> p { color: blue; } </style> </head> ### Advantages - Suitable for one page - Centralizes that page’s styles ### Disadvantages - Not automatically shared across many pages --- ## 3.20 External CSS External CSS is stored in a separate file. HTML: <link rel="stylesheet" href="styles.css"> CSS file: p { color: blue; } ### Advantages - Reusable across many pages - Easier maintenance - Cleaner HTML - Browser can cache the file ### Disadvantage - Requires an additional file request ### Best General Choice External CSS is normally preferred for multi-page websites. --- ## 3.21 CSS Types Comparison | Inline | Internal | External | |---|---|---| | Inside `style` attribute | Inside `<style>` element | Separate `.css` file | | Affects one element | Affects one page | Can affect many pages | | Hardest to maintain | Suitable for one page | Best maintainability | | Highest direct specificity in common basic cases | Controlled within page | Reusable | --- ## 3.22 CSS Selectors ### Element Selector p { color: blue; } Selects all `<p>` elements. ### Class Selector .important { color: red; } HTML: <p class="important">Warning</p> A class can be reused on many elements. ### ID Selector #header { background-color: black; } HTML: <div id="header">Title</div> An ID should uniquely identify one element in a document. ### Universal Selector * { box-sizing: border-box; } Selects all elements. --- ## 3.23 CSS Box Model Every element can be viewed as a box: +----------------------------------+ | Margin | | +--------------------------+ | | | Border | | | | +------------------+ | | | | | Padding | | | | | | +------------+ | | | | | | | Content | | | | | | | +------------+ | | | | | +------------------+ | | | +--------------------------+ | +----------------------------------+ - Content: actual text or image - Padding: space inside border - Border: line around padding and content - Margin: space outside border --- # 3D. JavaScript Basics ## 3.24 What Is JavaScript? JavaScript is a programming language commonly used to make web pages interactive. It can: - Respond to button clicks - Validate forms - Change page content - Perform calculations - Communicate with servers - Create animations - Update pages without full reload JavaScript commonly runs in the browser, but it can also run on servers. --- ## 3.25 Adding JavaScript to HTML Internal example: <script> alert("Welcome"); </script> External example: <script src="app.js"></script> External files improve organization and reuse. --- ## 3.26 JavaScript Variables Modern JavaScript commonly uses: - `let`: variable that may be reassigned - `const`: binding that should not be reassigned - `var`: older function-scoped declaration Examples: let marks = 75; marks = 80; const schoolName = "ABC School"; JavaScript is dynamically typed, meaning a variable’s value type is determined at runtime. --- ## 3.27 JavaScript Data Types Important basic types: - Number - String - Boolean - Undefined - Null - Object - BigInt - Symbol Examples: let age = 20; let name = "Asha"; let passed = true; --- ## 3.28 Conditions if (marks >= 40) { result = "Pass"; } else { result = "Fail"; } The condition determines which block executes. --- ## 3.29 Loops ### For Loop for (let i = 1; i <= 5; i++) { console.log(i); } ### While Loop let i = 1; while (i <= 5) { console.log(i); i++; } --- ## 3.30 Functions A function is a reusable block of code. function add(a, b) { return a + b; } let total = add(10, 20); Result: 30 --- ## 3.31 Events An **event** is an action detected by the browser. Examples: - click - change - submit - keydown - load - mouseover Example: <button onclick="showMessage()">Click</button> <script> function showMessage() { alert("Button clicked"); } </script> --- ## 3.32 DOM DOM stands for **Document Object Model**. The DOM represents an HTML page as objects that JavaScript can access and change. Example: document.getElementById("message").textContent = "Welcome"; This changes the text of an element whose ID is `message`. --- # 3E. PHP Basics ## 3.33 What Is PHP? PHP is a server-side scripting language widely used for web development. PHP originally stood for Personal Home Page. Its modern recursive name is: PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor PHP code runs on the server. The browser receives the generated output, usually HTML. Flow: Browser Request | v Web Server | v PHP Execution | v Database if Required | v Generated HTML Response | v Browser --- ## 3.34 Basic PHP Syntax <?php echo "Hello"; ?> PHP statements commonly end with a semicolon. ### Variables PHP variables begin with `$`. $name = "Asha"; $marks = 85; PHP is dynamically typed. --- ## 3.35 PHP Form and Database Use PHP can: - Receive form data - Validate input - Manage sessions - Read and write files - Communicate with databases - Generate dynamic pages Security requires: - Input validation - Output encoding - Parameterized database queries - Safe session handling - Correct access control --- ## 3.36 JavaScript vs PHP | JavaScript | PHP | |---|---| | Commonly runs in browser | Runs on server | | Handles page interaction | Handles server logic | | Can modify DOM | Can communicate with server databases | | Source delivered to browser in client-side use | Source normally remains on server | | Also has server-side use | Primarily known as server-side web language | --- # 3F. XML ## 3.37 What Is XML? XML stands for **Extensible Markup Language**. XML is used to store, structure and exchange data. It allows users to define their own tags. Example: <?xml version="1.0"?> <student> <name>Asha</name> <marks>85</marks> </student> The tags describe the data. --- ## 3.38 XML Rules A well-formed XML document must follow rules such as: 1. It must have one root element. 2. Tags must be properly nested. 3. Tags are case-sensitive. 4. Every opening tag must have a closing tag or be self-closing. 5. Attribute values must be quoted. Correct: <student> <name>Asha</name> </student> Incorrect nesting: <student> <name>Asha</student> </name> Case-sensitive difference: <Name> is not the same as <name>. --- ## 3.39 Well-Formed and Valid XML ### Well-Formed XML Follows basic XML syntax rules. ### Valid XML Is well-formed and also follows a defined structure such as: - DTD - XML Schema ### DTD DTD stands for **Document Type Definition**. It can define allowed elements and structure. ### XML Schema An XML Schema can define: - Elements - Attributes - Data types - Ordering - Occurrence rules --- ## 3.40 HTML vs XML | HTML | XML | |---|---| | Displays and structures web content | Stores and transports structured data | | Uses predefined tags | Allows user-defined tags | | Commonly focuses on presentation and semantics | Focuses on describing data | | HTML parsing is relatively forgiving | XML syntax is strict | | Tags are generally case-insensitive in HTML syntax | Tags are case-sensitive | | Some HTML elements are void elements | XML elements must close properly | Memory rule: HTML = Display content XML = Describe data --- # 3G. E-Commerce Models ## 3.41 What Is E-Commerce? **Electronic commerce**, or **e-commerce**, means buying, selling or exchanging goods, services or information through electronic networks. Examples: - Online shopping - Online ticket booking - Digital payment - Online marketplace - Electronic procurement --- ## 3.42 B2C — Business to Consumer A business sells directly to individual consumers. Example: An online store sells a laptop to a student. Business → Consumer --- ## 3.43 B2B — Business to Business One business sells to another business. Examples: - Manufacturer sells to wholesaler - Software company provides services to another company - Supplier sells office equipment to a school Business → Business --- ## 3.44 C2C — Consumer to Consumer One consumer sells to another consumer through a platform. Example: A person sells a used phone to another person through an online marketplace. Consumer → Consumer --- ## 3.45 C2B — Consumer to Business An individual offers a product or service to a business. Examples: - Freelancer creates a logo for a company - Photographer licenses a photograph to a business - Influencer provides promotion to a company Consumer → Business --- ## 3.46 Government-Related Models ### G2C — Government to Citizen Government provides digital services to citizens. Examples: - Online certificate service - Tax-related citizen portal - Online application service ### G2B — Government to Business Digital interaction between government and businesses. Examples: - Electronic tender - Business registration - Tax filing ### G2G — Government to Government Electronic interaction between government departments. --- ## 3.47 E-Commerce Model Summary | Model | Parties | Example | |---|---|---| | B2C | Business to consumer | Online retail | | B2B | Business to business | Supplier portal | | C2C | Consumer to consumer | Used-goods marketplace | | C2B | Consumer to business | Freelancer service | | G2C | Government to citizen | Online citizen service | | G2B | Government to business | E-tendering | | G2G | Government to government | Departmental data exchange | --- ## 3.48 E-Commerce Advantages and Risks ### Advantages - Available at any time - Global reach - Easy price comparison - Lower physical-store cost - Faster transactions - Personalized services ### Risks and Limitations - Online fraud - Privacy concerns - Delivery problems - Product cannot always be physically examined - Dependence on Internet access - Cybersecurity risks - Payment disputes --- # 3H. Internet of Things ## 3.49 What Is IoT? IoT stands for **Internet of Things**. It refers to physical objects equipped with: - Sensors - Processing ability - Software - Network connectivity These objects collect and exchange data. Examples: - Smartwatch - Smart electricity meter - Connected security camera - Smart irrigation system - Industrial sensor - Connected vehicle - Smart classroom equipment --- ## 3.50 Basic IoT Components ### Device or Thing The physical object being monitored or controlled. ### Sensor A sensor detects a physical condition. Examples: - Temperature - Humidity - Light - Motion - Pressure - Location ### Actuator An **actuator** performs a physical action. Examples: - Opens a valve - Turns on a motor - Switches a light - Locks a door ### Processor or Controller Processes data and controls the device. Examples: - Microcontroller - Embedded processor ### Connectivity Allows data exchange. Examples: - Wi-Fi - Bluetooth - Cellular network - Zigbee - Ethernet ### Gateway Connects local IoT devices to other networks or cloud services. It may: - Translate protocols - Aggregate data - Filter data - Apply security controls ### Cloud or Server Platform Stores and processes device data. ### Application Allows users to monitor or control the system. --- ## 3.51 IoT Working Example Smart irrigation system: Soil-Moisture Sensor | v Controller | v Network/Gateway | v IoT Platform | v Decision or Rule | v Water-Pump Actuator If soil moisture is too low, the system can turn on the water pump. --- ## 3.52 Three-Layer IoT Architecture A basic IoT architecture has three layers: 1. Perception layer 2. Network layer 3. Application layer ### Perception Layer Interacts with the physical world. Includes: - Sensors - Actuators - RFID - Embedded devices Main function: Sense and collect data ### Network Layer Transfers data between devices, gateways and platforms. Includes: - Wi-Fi - Bluetooth - Cellular networks - Routers - Gateways - Internet Main function: Connect and transport ### Application Layer Provides user services. Examples: - Smart home - Smart agriculture - Smart healthcare - Smart city - Industrial monitoring Main function: Deliver useful service Diagram: +-------------------------------+ | Application Layer | | Smart home, health, agriculture| +-------------------------------+ ^ | +-------------------------------+ | Network Layer | | Internet, gateway, Wi-Fi, 5G | +-------------------------------+ ^ | +-------------------------------+ | Perception Layer | | Sensors, RFID, actuators | +-------------------------------+ Mnemonic: Perception = Sense Network = Send Application = Serve --- ## 3.53 Five-Layer IoT Architecture A more detailed model may contain: 1. Perception layer 2. Transport layer 3. Processing or middleware layer 4. Application layer 5. Business layer ### Perception Layer Collects physical data. ### Transport Layer Moves data through networks. ### Processing or Middleware Layer Stores, processes and analyses data. May include: - Cloud computing - Databases - Device management - Data analytics ### Application Layer Provides application-specific services. ### Business Layer Manages: - Business rules - Reports - Performance - Policies - Complete IoT operations --- ## 3.54 RFID RFID stands for **Radio-Frequency Identification**. It uses radio waves to identify tagged objects. Basic components: - RFID tag - RFID reader - Processing system Uses: - Inventory tracking - Access cards - Supply-chain management - Library systems --- ## 3.55 IoT Communication Technologies | Technology | General Use | |---|---| | Bluetooth | Short-range personal devices | | Wi-Fi | High-speed local connectivity | | Zigbee | Low-power short-range device networks | | NFC | Very short-range communication | | Cellular/4G/5G | Wide-area mobile connectivity | | Ethernet | Reliable wired communication | | RFID | Identification and tracking | --- ## 3.56 IoT Applications ### Smart Home - Smart lights - Smart locks - Smart thermostat - Security cameras ### Smart Agriculture - Soil monitoring - Automated irrigation - Livestock tracking - Weather monitoring ### Healthcare - Wearable health monitors - Remote patient monitoring - Smart medicine reminders - Connected medical devices - Emergency alerts - Monitoring heart rate, blood pressure or blood glucose Important: Healthcare IoT devices handle sensitive information. They require strong privacy, security and reliability. ### Smart City - Smart traffic lights - Smart parking - Waste-management monitoring - Air-quality monitoring - Smart street lighting - Water-supply monitoring ### Industrial IoT The use of IoT in factories and industrial environments is called **Industrial IoT**, or **IIoT**. Applications: - Machine-condition monitoring - Predictive maintenance - Production tracking - Energy monitoring - Worker safety - Supply-chain monitoring ### Predictive Maintenance **Predictive maintenance** uses sensor data to predict when equipment may fail. This allows maintenance before a serious breakdown occurs. ### Smart Education - Smart attendance - Connected classroom devices - Environmental monitoring - Digital learning equipment - Asset tracking - Energy management ### Transportation - Connected vehicles - Fleet tracking - Route optimization - Traffic monitoring - Vehicle-condition monitoring ### Energy - Smart meters - Smart grids - Energy-consumption monitoring - Fault detection - Demand management --- ## 3.57 Advantages of IoT IoT can provide: 1. Automation 2. Real-time monitoring 3. Better decision-making 4. Efficient resource use 5. Reduced human effort 6. Predictive maintenance 7. Remote control 8. Improved safety 9. Better customer service 10. Collection of useful data --- ## 3.58 IoT Challenges ### Security IoT devices may have: - Weak passwords - Old software - Unsafe default settings - Limited security controls - Unprotected communication ### Privacy Sensors may collect sensitive information such as: - Location - Health data - Personal habits - Images - Audio ### Interoperability **Interoperability** means the ability of different devices and systems to work together. Devices from different manufacturers may use different: - Protocols - Data formats - Platforms - Standards ### Scalability **Scalability** means the ability to handle growth. An IoT platform may need to support: - Thousands of devices - Millions of messages - Large amounts of data ### Power Consumption Many sensors run on batteries. Low-power communication and efficient processing are important. ### Connectivity Some locations may have: - Weak Internet access - Interference - Unstable mobile coverage ### Data Management IoT systems can produce large amounts of data. The system must: - Store it - Process it - Protect it - Remove unnecessary data - Follow retention policies ### Maintenance Large numbers of devices require: - Software updates - Battery replacement - Fault detection - Configuration management - Secure disposal --- ## 3.59 IoT Security Controls Important IoT security measures include: 1. Change default passwords. 2. Use strong authentication. 3. Install security updates. 4. Encrypt sensitive communication. 5. Disable unnecessary services. 6. Separate IoT devices from critical networks. 7. Use secure device configuration. 8. Monitor unusual activity. 9. Limit permissions. 10. Protect physical access. 11. Verify software updates. 12. Remove unsupported devices. ### Network Segmentation **Network segmentation** divides a network into smaller controlled parts. Example: Administrative Network | Firewall | IoT Device Network If an IoT device is compromised, segmentation can limit access to critical systems. --- ## 3.60 IoT vs Traditional Internet Use | Traditional Internet Device | IoT Device | |---|---| | Usually designed for direct human use | May operate automatically | | Often has a full user interface | May have little or no interface | | Examples: laptop, desktop | Examples: sensor, smart meter | | Human generates much of the activity | Device may generate data continuously | | Usually has more processing and power | May have limited processing and battery | --- # 4. Microsoft Office ## 4.1 What Is an Office Suite? An **office suite** is a collection of applications used for common workplace tasks. Microsoft Office applications include: - Microsoft Word - Microsoft Excel - Microsoft PowerPoint - Microsoft Access - Microsoft Outlook Day 14 focuses on: - Word - Excel - PowerPoint - Access --- ## 4.2 Common Interface Terms ### Ribbon The **Ribbon** is the command area containing tabs and groups. Examples of tabs: - Home - Insert - Design - Layout - Review - View ### Quick Access Toolbar Contains frequently used commands such as: - Save - Undo - Redo ### Status Bar Displays information about the current document. Examples: - Page number - Word count - Zoom level - View mode ### Backstage View Opened through the File tab. It contains commands such as: - New - Open - Save - Print - Export - Options --- # 4A. Microsoft Word ## 4.3 What Is Microsoft Word? Microsoft Word is a word-processing application. It is used to create: - Letters - Reports - Notices - Resumes - Question papers - Books - Certificates - Labels Common Word file extension: .docx Older extension: .doc --- ## 4.4 Text Formatting Common formatting options: - Font - Font size - Bold - Italic - Underline - Text colour - Highlight - Change case - Superscript - Subscript Examples: - Superscript: x² - Subscript: H₂O ### Paragraph Formatting Includes: - Alignment - Indentation - Line spacing - Paragraph spacing - Bullets - Numbering - Borders - Shading Alignment types: | Alignment | Shortcut | |---|---| | Left | Ctrl+L | | Centre | Ctrl+E | | Right | Ctrl+R | | Justify | Ctrl+J | --- ## 4.5 Styles A **style** is a saved set of formatting properties. Examples: - Normal - Title - Heading 1 - Heading 2 Advantages: - Consistent formatting - Fast formatting - Easier document navigation - Automatic table of contents - Easy document-wide changes --- ## 4.6 Header, Footer and Page Number ### Header Content repeated at the top of pages. ### Footer Content repeated at the bottom of pages. They may contain: - Page number - Document title - Author - Date - Organization name A page number can be placed in the header, footer or page margin. --- ## 4.7 Page Setup Page setup includes: - Margins - Orientation - Paper size - Columns - Page breaks ### Orientation - Portrait: page is taller than it is wide - Landscape: page is wider than it is tall ### Page Break Starts the following content on a new page. Shortcut: Ctrl+Enter --- ## 4.8 Find and Replace ### Find Searches for text. Shortcut: Ctrl+F ### Replace Finds text and replaces it with other text. Shortcut: Ctrl+H Example: Replace every occurrence of: 2025 with: 2026 --- ## 4.9 Spell Check Word can identify possible: - Spelling errors - Grammar problems Common shortcut: F7 Suggestions should still be checked carefully because software may misunderstand context. --- # 4B. Mail Merge ## 4.10 What Is Mail Merge? **Mail Merge** creates many personalized documents from: 1. One main document 2. One data source Example: One invitation letter is prepared for 500 students. The fixed text remains the same, but fields such as these change: - Name - Address - Roll number - Examination centre --- ## 4.11 Mail Merge Components ### Main Document Contains fixed text and merge fields. Example: Dear «StudentName», Your examination centre is «CentreName». ### Data Source Contains variable records. Example: | StudentName | RollNumber | CentreName | |---|---:|---| | Asha | 101 | Centre A | | Ravi | 102 | Centre B | ### Merge Field A placeholder that receives data from the data source. Examples: - StudentName - RollNumber - CentreName ### Merged Output The final personalized documents. --- ## 4.12 Mail Merge Steps 1. Create or open the main document. 2. Open the Mailings tab. 3. Choose Start Mail Merge. 4. Select document type. 5. Select recipients. 6. Connect or create the data source. 7. Insert merge fields. 8. Preview results. 9. Finish and merge. 10. Print or create individual documents. Flow: Main Document + Data Source | v Merge Fields | v Personalized Documents --- ## 4.13 Mail Merge Uses Mail Merge can create: - Letters - Email messages - Envelopes - Labels - Directories - Certificates ### Exam Point Mail Merge is used when: One basic document must be personalized for many recipients. --- # 4C. Track Changes and Comments ## 4.14 Track Changes **Track Changes** records edits made to a document. It can show: - Inserted text - Deleted text - Formatting changes - Editor identity - Review information It is useful when several people review a document. --- ## 4.15 Accept and Reject Changes After reviewing tracked edits, a user can: - Accept a change - Reject a change - Accept all changes - Reject all changes Turning off Track Changes does not automatically accept or remove existing tracked changes. --- ## 4.16 Comments Comments allow reviewers to add notes without changing the main text directly. Uses: - Ask a question - Suggest improvement - Explain a correction - Request clarification Track Changes records edits. Comments record discussion or suggestions. --- # 4D. Microsoft Excel ## 4.17 What Is Microsoft Excel? Microsoft Excel is spreadsheet software. It is used for: - Calculations - Tables - Data analysis - Charts - Attendance - Marks - Budgeting - Reports Common Excel file extension: .xlsx Older extension: .xls --- ## 4.18 Workbook, Worksheet, Row, Column and Cell ### Workbook The complete Excel file. ### Worksheet One spreadsheet page inside a workbook. ### Row Horizontal group of cells. Rows are numbered: 1, 2, 3, ... ### Column Vertical group of cells. Columns are lettered: A, B, C, ..., Z, AA, AB, ... ### Cell The intersection of a row and column. Example: B5 means: - Column B - Row 5 ### Active Cell The currently selected cell. ### Range A group of cells. Example: A1:C5 This range includes cells from A1 through C5. --- ## 4.19 Formula Basics A formula normally begins with: = Examples: =A1+B1 =C2*10 =(A1+B1)/2 ### Operators | Operator | Meaning | |---|---| | `+` | Addition | | `-` | Subtraction | | `*` | Multiplication | | `/` | Division | | `^` | Exponent | | `%` | Percentage | | `=` | Equal comparison | | `>` | Greater than | | `<` | Less than | | `<>` | Not equal | | `>=` | Greater than or equal | | `<=` | Less than or equal | --- ## 4.20 Formula vs Function ### Formula A user-created expression. Example: =A1+B1+C1 ### Function A predefined calculation. Example: =SUM(A1:C1) A function can be part of a larger formula. --- # 4E. Essential Excel Functions ## 4.21 SUM Adds values. =SUM(B2:B10) Adds all values from B2 to B10. Multiple ranges: =SUM(B2:B10,D2:D10) --- ## 4.22 AVERAGE Calculates arithmetic mean. =AVERAGE(B2:B10) Formula concept: Average = Sum of values / Number of values --- ## 4.23 COUNT Counts cells containing numbers. =COUNT(B2:B10) Important: COUNT does not count ordinary text cells. --- ## 4.24 COUNTA Counts non-empty cells. =COUNTA(B2:B10) It can count cells containing: - Numbers - Text - Logical values - Other entries ### COUNT vs COUNTA | COUNT | COUNTA | |---|---| | Counts numeric cells | Counts non-empty cells | | Ignores text | Includes text | --- ## 4.25 MAX and MIN Largest value: =MAX(B2:B10) Smallest value: =MIN(B2:B10) --- ## 4.26 IF Function The IF function performs a logical test. Syntax: =IF(condition, value_if_true, value_if_false) Example: =IF(B2>=40,"Pass","Fail") Meaning: - If B2 is at least 40, return Pass. - Otherwise, return Fail. Another example: =IF(C2>=75,"Distinction","Other") --- ## 4.27 AND and OR ### AND Returns TRUE only when all conditions are true. =AND(B2>=40,C2>=40) ### OR Returns TRUE when at least one condition is true. =OR(B2>=40,C2>=40) Combined with IF: =IF(AND(B2>=40,C2>=40),"Pass","Fail") --- ## 4.28 COUNTIF Counts cells that meet one condition. =COUNTIF(B2:B20,">=40") This counts values of at least 40. Text example: =COUNTIF(C2:C20,"Pass") --- ## 4.29 SUMIF Adds cells that meet one condition. Syntax: =SUMIF(criteria_range, criteria, sum_range) Example: =SUMIF(A2:A20,"Science",B2:B20) This adds values in B2:B20 where the corresponding value in A2:A20 is Science. --- ## 4.30 ROUND Rounds a number to a specified number of digits. =ROUND(A1,2) Rounds A1 to two decimal places. --- # 4F. VLOOKUP ## 4.31 What Is VLOOKUP? VLOOKUP means **Vertical Lookup**. It searches for a value in the first column of a table and returns a value from another column in the same row. Syntax: =VLOOKUP(lookup_value, table_array, column_index, range_lookup) Example data: | A | B | C | |---|---|---| | Roll | Name | Marks | | 101 | Asha | 85 | | 102 | Ravi | 78 | | 103 | Meera | 91 | Formula: =VLOOKUP(102,A2:C4,3,FALSE) Result: 78 Explanation: - `102`: value to find - `A2:C4`: table - `3`: return value from third column - `FALSE`: require exact match --- ## 4.32 Exact vs Approximate Match ### FALSE Requires an exact match. Common for: - Roll number - Employee ID - Product code ### TRUE Uses an approximate match. The first column usually needs to be sorted in ascending order for reliable approximate matching. ### Important VLOOKUP Limitations - Searches only in the first column of the selected table. - Returns data from a column to the right. - The column index is counted from the table’s first column. --- # 4G. Excel Cell References ## 4.33 Relative Reference A relative reference changes when a formula is copied. Example: =A2+B2 If copied from row 2 to row 3, it becomes: =A3+B3 There are no dollar signs. --- ## 4.34 Absolute Reference An absolute reference does not change when copied. Example: =$A$1 Both column and row are fixed. Example: If tax rate is stored in E1: =B2*$E$1 When copied downward: - B2 changes to B3, B4, and so on. - `$E$1` remains fixed. --- ## 4.35 Mixed Reference A mixed reference fixes either the column or the row. ### Fixed Column =$A1 Column A remains fixed. Row can change. ### Fixed Row =A$1 Row 1 remains fixed. Column can change. --- ## 4.36 Reference Comparison | Reference | Type | What Is Fixed? | |---|---|---| | `A1` | Relative | Nothing | | `$A$1` | Absolute | Column and row | | `$A1` | Mixed | Column only | | `A$1` | Mixed | Row only | Shortcut while editing a reference: F4 F4 cycles through reference types in many Excel versions. --- # 4H. Excel Errors ## 4.37 Common Error Values | Error | Meaning | |---|---| | `#DIV/0!` | Division by zero | | `#NAME?` | Unrecognized name or misspelled function | | `#VALUE!` | Wrong type of value | | `#REF!` | Invalid cell reference | | `#N/A` | Value not available | | `#####` | Column may be too narrow or value cannot display normally | --- # 4I. Sorting, Filtering and Conditional Formatting ## 4.38 Sorting Sorting arranges data. Examples: - A to Z - Z to A - Smallest to largest - Largest to smallest - Oldest to newest Sorting changes the order of records. --- ## 4.39 Filtering Filtering temporarily displays only records that meet conditions. Example: Show only students whose result is Pass. Filtering does not normally delete hidden records. --- ## 4.40 Conditional Formatting Conditional formatting changes cell appearance when conditions are met. Examples: - Marks below 40 shown in red - Top 10 scores highlighted - Duplicate values identified - Data bars displayed --- # 4J. PivotTable ## 4.41 What Is a PivotTable? A **PivotTable** summarizes and analyses large data quickly. It can calculate: - Sum - Count - Average - Minimum - Maximum Example source data: | Student | Subject | Marks | |---|---|---:| | Asha | Science | 85 | | Ravi | Science | 75 | | Asha | Maths | 90 | | Ravi | Maths | 80 | A PivotTable can show: | Subject | Average Marks | |---|---:| | Maths | 85 | | Science | 80 | --- ## 4.42 PivotTable Areas Important areas: ### Rows Categories displayed vertically. ### Columns Categories displayed horizontally. ### Values Numbers being summarized. ### Filters Limits the displayed data. Example: Rows: Subject Columns: Class Values: Average of Marks Filter: Examination Year --- ## 4.43 PivotTable Steps 1. Select clean tabular data. 2. Choose Insert. 3. Select PivotTable. 4. Confirm table or range. 5. Choose a location. 6. Drag fields into Rows, Columns, Values and Filters. 7. Select the required summary operation. 8. Refresh when source data changes. ### Important Point A PivotTable summarizes data. It does not normally change the original source data. --- ## 4.44 Charts Common chart types: | Chart | Best Use | |---|---| | Column | Compare categories | | Bar | Compare categories with long labels | | Line | Show trends over time | | Pie | Show parts of a whole with few categories | | Scatter | Show relationship between numeric variables | | Area | Show magnitude over time | A chart should have: - Clear title - Correct labels - Suitable scale - Readable legend - Appropriate chart type --- # 4K. Microsoft PowerPoint ## 4.45 What Is PowerPoint? Microsoft PowerPoint is presentation software. It is used to create slide-based presentations. Common file extension: .pptx Older extension: .ppt A presentation may contain: - Text - Images - Tables - Charts - Audio - Video - Shapes - SmartArt - Animations --- ## 4.46 Slide Layout A **slide layout** defines the arrangement of placeholders. Examples: - Title Slide - Title and Content - Two Content - Section Header - Blank A **placeholder** is a predefined area for content. --- ## 4.47 Theme and Template ### Theme A coordinated set of: - Colours - Fonts - Effects - Background styles ### Template A reusable presentation design that may include: - Theme - Slide layouts - Sample content - Formatting --- ## 4.48 Slide Master The **Slide Master** controls common design and layout elements across many slides. Use it to manage: - Fonts - Colours - Logos - Backgrounds - Placeholder positions - Common footer elements Advantage: A single change can update many slides. --- ## 4.49 Transition vs Animation ### Transition An effect that occurs when moving from one slide to another. Examples: - Fade - Wipe - Push ### Animation An effect applied to an object on a slide. Examples: - Text appears - Image moves - Shape disappears | Transition | Animation | |---|---| | Between slides | On objects within a slide | | Applied to slide change | Applied to text, image or shape | | Example: Fade between slides | Example: Title flies in | --- ## 4.50 Animation Categories ### Entrance Controls how an object appears. ### Emphasis Draws attention to an object already visible. ### Exit Controls how an object disappears. ### Motion Path Moves an object along a path. --- ## 4.51 PowerPoint Views ### Normal View Main editing view. Used to create and modify slides. ### Outline View Focuses on presentation text and hierarchy. ### Slide Sorter View Displays slide thumbnails. Useful for: - Reordering slides - Copying slides - Deleting slides - Applying transitions ### Notes Page View Shows a slide with speaker notes. ### Reading View Plays the presentation in a window. ### Slide Show View Displays the full presentation for the audience. Starts from beginning: F5 Starts from current slide: Shift+F5 ### Presenter View Shows the presenter: - Current slide - Next slide - Notes - Timer The audience normally sees only the main slide show. --- ## 4.52 Good Presentation Principles 1. Use clear, large text. 2. Keep slides simple. 3. Use high colour contrast. 4. Avoid excessive animation. 5. Use short points instead of long paragraphs. 6. Use relevant images. 7. Keep fonts consistent. 8. Check spelling. 9. Rehearse timing. 10. Do not read every word directly from the slide. --- # 4L. Microsoft Access ## 4.53 What Is Microsoft Access? Microsoft Access is a relational database-management application. Common file extension: .accdb Older extension: .mdb Access can store and manage related data using: - Tables - Queries - Forms - Reports --- ## 4.54 Table A table stores data in rows and columns. Example: | StudentID | Name | Class | |---:|---|---| | 101 | Asha | 10 | | 102 | Ravi | 10 | ### Field A field is a column. Examples: - StudentID - Name - Class ### Record A record is a row containing related field values. --- ## 4.55 Primary Key A **primary key** uniquely identifies each record. Example: StudentID Primary-key values should be: - Unique - Not null A table has one primary-key constraint, although that key can contain more than one field. --- ## 4.56 Relationship Relationships connect tables through related fields. Common relationship types: - One-to-one - One-to-many - Many-to-many Example: One Class → Many Students A foreign key refers to a primary key in another table. --- ## 4.57 Query A **query** asks a database to retrieve or modify data. Examples: - Find all students in Class 10. - Show students with marks above 80. - Calculate average marks. - Update a fee status. - Delete selected records. --- ## 4.58 Select Query A Select query retrieves data. Example purpose: Display Name and Marks where Marks >= 80 It does not normally change source records. --- ## 4.59 Action Queries Action queries modify data. Important types: ### Update Query Changes existing records. ### Append Query Adds records to another table. ### Delete Query Deletes records. ### Make-Table Query Creates a new table from query results. Important: Action queries can change data. They should be used carefully. --- ## 4.60 Parameter Query A parameter query asks the user for input when the query runs. Example prompt: Enter Class: The query then displays records for the entered class. --- ## 4.61 Crosstab Query A Crosstab query summarizes data in row-and-column format. It is similar to a PivotTable. Example: Show average marks: - Rows: Subject - Columns: Class - Values: Average Marks --- ## 4.62 Form A **form** provides a user-friendly interface for: - Entering data - Viewing records - Editing records - Navigating data Forms can include: - Text boxes - Buttons - Drop-down lists - Labels --- ## 4.63 Report A **report** presents formatted data for: - Viewing - Printing - Summaries - Grouped results Example: A class-wise student result report. ### Form vs Report | Form | Report | |---|---| | Mainly for data entry and interaction | Mainly for formatted output | | Interactive | Often designed for viewing or printing | | Can edit records | Usually presents data | | Screen-oriented | Print and presentation-oriented | --- ## 4.64 Access Object Summary | Object | Main Function | |---|---| | Table | Stores data | | Query | Retrieves or modifies data | | Form | User-friendly data entry | | Report | Formatted output | Mnemonic: Table = Store Query = Ask Form = Enter Report = Present --- # 4M. Important MS Office Shortcut Keys ## 4.65 Common Shortcuts | Shortcut | Function | |---|---| | Ctrl+N | Create new file | | Ctrl+O | Open file | | Ctrl+S | Save | | F12 | Save As in many Office applications | | Ctrl+P | Print | | Ctrl+W | Close current file or window | | Ctrl+Z | Undo | | Ctrl+Y | Redo or repeat | | Ctrl+X | Cut | | Ctrl+C | Copy | | Ctrl+V | Paste | | Ctrl+A | Select all | | Ctrl+F | Find | | Ctrl+H | Replace | | Ctrl+B | Bold | | Ctrl+I | Italic | | Ctrl+U | Underline | | Ctrl+K | Insert hyperlink | | Ctrl+Home | Go to beginning | | Ctrl+End | Go to end | | F1 | Help | | F7 | Spelling and grammar check | --- ## 4.66 Word-Specific Shortcuts | Shortcut | Function | |---|---| | Ctrl+L | Align left | | Ctrl+E | Centre align | | Ctrl+R | Align right | | Ctrl+J | Justify | | Ctrl+1 | Single-line spacing | | Ctrl+2 | Double-line spacing | | Ctrl+5 | 1.5-line spacing | | Ctrl+M | Increase paragraph indent | | Ctrl+Shift+M | Decrease paragraph indent | | Ctrl+Enter | Page break | | Ctrl+Shift+> | Increase font size | | Ctrl+Shift+< | Decrease font size | | Shift+F3 | Change case | | Ctrl+D | Open Font dialog box | | Ctrl+Shift+L | Apply bullets | | Ctrl+Alt+1 | Apply Heading 1 | | Ctrl+Alt+2 | Apply Heading 2 | --- ## 4.67 Excel-Specific Shortcuts | Shortcut | Function | |---|---| | F2 | Edit active cell | | Alt+= | AutoSum | | Ctrl+; | Enter current date | | Ctrl+Shift+; | Enter current time | | Ctrl+Space | Select entire column | | Shift+Space | Select entire row | | Ctrl+1 | Open Format Cells dialog box | | Ctrl+` | Show or hide formulas | | Ctrl+Page Up | Previous worksheet | | Ctrl+Page Down | Next worksheet | | F4 | Repeat action or cycle reference type while editing | | Ctrl+Arrow | Move to edge of data region | | Ctrl+Shift+Arrow | Select to edge of data region | --- ## 4.68 PowerPoint-Specific Shortcuts | Shortcut | Function | |---|---| | Ctrl+M | Insert new slide | | Ctrl+D | Duplicate selected slide or object | | F5 | Start Slide Show from beginning | | Shift+F5 | Start Slide Show from current slide | | Esc | End Slide Show | | B | Black screen during Slide Show | | W | White screen during Slide Show | | N or Right Arrow | Next slide | | P or Left Arrow | Previous slide | | Ctrl+G | Group objects | | Ctrl+Shift+G | Ungroup objects | You now know more than the required 30 MS Office shortcut keys. --- # 5. Pedagogy ## 5.1 What Is Pedagogy? **Pedagogy** is the theory and practice of teaching. It includes: - Teaching methods - Learning processes - Classroom interaction - Assessment - Curriculum delivery - Educational technology - Learner development Pedagogy is not only what is taught. It also concerns how and why it is taught. --- ## 5.2 Teaching and Learning ### Teaching Teaching is the planned process of helping learners acquire: - Knowledge - Skills - Attitudes - Values - Understanding ### Learning Learning is a relatively lasting change in: - Knowledge - Skill - Behaviour - Understanding - Attitude Learning occurs through: - Experience - Practice - Observation - Reflection - Interaction - Instruction --- ## 5.3 Characteristics of Effective Teaching Effective teaching is: - Goal-oriented - Learner-sensitive - Clearly explained - Interactive - Inclusive - Well organized - Based on feedback - Connected to prior knowledge - Supported by assessment - Adaptable to learner differences --- # 5A. Teaching Methods ## 5.4 Lecture Method The teacher explains content orally to learners. ### Advantages - Covers much content quickly - Suitable for large classes - Economical - Useful for introducing a topic ### Limitations - Learners may remain passive - Individual differences receive less attention - Limited practical experience - Understanding may be difficult to check ### Improvement A lecture becomes more effective when combined with: - Questions - Examples - Visuals - Short activities - Summary - Feedback --- ## 5.5 Demonstration Method The teacher shows how something is done. Suitable for: - Computer operations - Scientific procedures - Practical skills - Software use Basic steps: 1. Explain the objective. 2. Prepare equipment. 3. Demonstrate slowly. 4. Explain each step. 5. Ask questions. 6. Let learners practise. 7. Give feedback. ### Advantages - Connects theory with practice - Shows correct procedure - Supports visual learning ### Limitation Learners may remain passive if they do not get their own practice time. --- ## 5.6 Discussion Method Teacher and learners exchange ideas about a topic. ### Advantages - Encourages participation - Develops communication - Promotes critical thinking - Reveals different viewpoints ### Limitations - Time-consuming - A few learners may dominate - Requires effective moderation --- ## 5.7 Question-Answer Method The teacher asks planned questions and learners respond. Uses: - Check prior knowledge - Maintain attention - Develop thinking - Assess understanding - Guide learners toward conclusions Good questions should be: - Clear - Relevant - Suitable for learner level - Thought-provoking - Distributed across the class --- ## 5.8 Project Method Learners complete a meaningful task or project. Examples: - Create a school website - Design a database - Conduct a survey - Prepare a digital presentation General stages: 1. Select problem or project. 2. Plan activities. 3. Perform the work. 4. Monitor progress. 5. Present the result. 6. Evaluate and reflect. ### Advantages - Learning by doing - Collaboration - Problem-solving - Real-world connection - Creativity - Responsibility ### Limitations - Time-consuming - Assessment may be difficult - Group participation may be unequal - Resources may be required --- ## 5.9 Problem-Solving Method Learners solve a defined problem through logical steps. Steps: 1. Identify the problem. 2. Understand relevant information. 3. Generate possible solutions. 4. Select a solution. 5. Apply it. 6. Evaluate the result. It develops: - Reasoning - Decision-making - Creativity - Independent learning --- ## 5.10 Discovery Method Learners discover principles through exploration and guided activities. The teacher acts as a facilitator. ### Advantages - Deep understanding - Curiosity - Active learning - Better retention ### Limitations - Takes time - Learners may form incorrect conclusions without guidance - Not every topic is suitable for pure discovery --- ## 5.11 Cooperative Learning Learners work in small groups to achieve a shared learning goal. Important characteristics: - Positive interdependence - Individual accountability - Face-to-face or active interaction - Social skills - Group reflection Examples: - Think-Pair-Share - Jigsaw - Group investigation - Peer tutoring ### Cooperative vs Simple Group Work Cooperative learning requires both: - Group success - Individual responsibility --- ## 5.12 Inquiry-Based Learning Learners ask questions, investigate evidence and develop conclusions. Possible stages: Question → Investigate → Analyse → Explain → Reflect It is especially useful for: - Science - Technology - Research skills - Critical thinking --- ## 5.13 Experiential Learning Experiential learning means learning through experience followed by reflection. A common cycle is: 1. Concrete experience 2. Reflective observation 3. Abstract conceptualization 4. Active experimentation Memory sequence: Experience → Reflect → Understand → Apply --- ## 5.14 Blended Learning **Blended learning** combines face-to-face teaching with digital or online learning. Example: - Classroom explanation - Online video - Digital quiz - Classroom discussion Advantages: - Flexibility - Multiple resources - Self-paced practice - Continued teacher support --- ## 5.15 Flipped Classroom In a **flipped classroom**, learners first study basic content before class. Class time is used for: - Discussion - Problem-solving - Practice - Projects - Teacher support Traditional pattern: Explanation in class → Homework later Flipped pattern: Basic study before class → Active practice in class --- ## 5.16 Teaching Method Comparison | Method | Teacher’s Main Role | Learner Activity | |---|---|---| | Lecture | Presenter | Listen and take notes | | Demonstration | Model and explain | Observe and practise | | Discussion | Moderator | Share and analyse ideas | | Project | Guide | Create a product or solution | | Problem-solving | Facilitator | Solve a problem | | Discovery | Guide | Explore and discover | | Cooperative | Organizer | Work with peers | | Flipped classroom | Facilitator | Study before class and practise in class | --- ## 5.17 Teacher-Centred vs Learner-Centred Teaching | Teacher-Centred | Learner-Centred | |---|---| | Teacher controls most activity | Learners actively participate | | Lecture is common | Projects and discussion are common | | Same pace for class | Greater attention to learner needs | | Learner often receives information | Learner constructs and applies knowledge | | Assessment may focus on recall | Assessment may include application and creation | A balanced teacher uses the method suitable for: - Objective - Content - Learner age - Time - Class size - Available resources --- # 5B. Bloom’s Taxonomy ## 5.18 What Is Bloom’s Taxonomy? Bloom’s Taxonomy classifies learning objectives. The revised cognitive-domain levels are: 1. Remember 2. Understand 3. Apply 4. Analyse 5. Evaluate 6. Create Order: Remember | v Understand | v Apply | v Analyse | v Evaluate | v Create Mnemonic: **Real Understanding Allows Analytical Evaluation and Creation** --- ## 5.19 Remember Retrieve facts from memory. Common action verbs: - Define - List - Name - Recall - Identify - State Example: List the seven OSI layers. --- ## 5.20 Understand Explain meaning. Action verbs: - Explain - Summarize - Describe - Classify - Compare - Interpret Example: Explain the function of the Transport layer. --- ## 5.21 Apply Use knowledge in a new or practical situation. Action verbs: - Use - Calculate - Demonstrate - Solve - Execute - Implement Example: Use an Excel IF formula to classify a result. --- ## 5.22 Analyse Break information into parts and examine relationships. Action verbs: - Differentiate - Compare - Organize - Examine - Analyse - Categorize Example: Differentiate Waterfall and Agile models. --- ## 5.23 Evaluate Make a judgment using criteria. Action verbs: - Judge - Justify - Critique - Assess - Defend - Recommend Example: Recommend a suitable conversion strategy and justify your choice. --- ## 5.24 Create Produce something new. Action verbs: - Design - Develop - Construct - Compose - Create - Plan Example: Design a school database. --- ## 5.25 Bloom’s Taxonomy Table | Level | Main Skill | Example | |---|---|---| | Remember | Recall | Name HTML tags | | Understand | Explain | Explain Mail Merge | | Apply | Use | Create an Excel formula | | Analyse | Compare parts | Compare testing methods | | Evaluate | Judge | Select the best SDLC model | | Create | Produce | Design a website | ### Important Exam Point In the revised taxonomy: Create is the highest cognitive level. The original taxonomy used noun forms and placed Evaluation above Synthesis. The revised version uses action verbs and places Create at the top. --- ## 5.26 Other Learning Domains ### Affective Domain Relates to: - Attitudes - Values - Interests - Feelings Example: Developing respect for digital privacy. ### Psychomotor Domain Relates to physical and practical skills. Example: Correctly connecting network cables or operating laboratory equipment. ### Cognitive Domain Relates to knowledge and thinking. Bloom’s six revised levels belong to the cognitive domain. --- # 5C. Learning Theories ## 5.27 Behaviourism Behaviourism views learning as a change in observable behaviour. Important ideas: - Stimulus - Response - Reinforcement - Practice - Feedback - Conditioning ### Reinforcement A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour. ### Positive Reinforcement Adds something desirable after correct behaviour. Example: Praising a learner for completing an assignment. ### Negative Reinforcement Removes an unpleasant condition to strengthen behaviour. Negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment. ### Classroom Applications - Repetition - Drill and practice - Immediate feedback - Rewards - Step-by-step instruction Important names commonly associated with behaviourism: - Ivan Pavlov - B. F. Skinner - John B. Watson - Edward Thorndike --- ## 5.28 Cognitivism Cognitivism focuses on internal mental processes. These include: - Attention - Memory - Perception - Understanding - Problem-solving - Information processing The learner is not viewed as only reacting to stimuli. The learner organizes and processes information. ### Classroom Applications - Connect new content to prior knowledge - Use diagrams and concept maps - Organize information into meaningful groups - Use examples and explanations - Encourage problem-solving Important name: - Jean Piaget is strongly associated with cognitive development. --- ## 5.29 Constructivism Constructivism states that learners actively construct knowledge through: - Experience - Prior knowledge - Interaction - Reflection The teacher acts as a facilitator rather than only a lecturer. ### Classroom Applications - Projects - Inquiry - Problem-solving - Discussion - Real-life tasks - Collaborative learning Important names: - Jean Piaget - Lev Vygotsky - Jerome Bruner --- ## 5.30 Zone of Proximal Development Vygotsky’s **Zone of Proximal Development**, or **ZPD**, is the difference between: - What a learner can do alone - What the learner can do with guidance Diagram: Too Easy: Learner can already do it alone ZPD: Learner can do it with support Too Difficult: Learner cannot yet do it even with support --- ## 5.31 Scaffolding **Scaffolding** is temporary support given to help a learner complete a task. Examples: - Hints - Worked example - Checklist - Guiding questions - Partially completed solution The support is gradually removed as the learner becomes independent. --- ## 5.32 Social Learning Theory Social Learning Theory emphasizes learning through observing others. Important processes: 1. Attention 2. Retention 3. Reproduction 4. Motivation A learner may observe a model, remember the behaviour and reproduce it. Important name: - Albert Bandura ### Classroom Applications - Teacher demonstration - Peer modeling - Worked examples - Educational videos - Collaborative activities --- ## 5.33 Connectivism Connectivism emphasizes learning through networks and digital connections. Knowledge may be distributed across: - People - Websites - Databases - Online communities - Digital tools An important skill is knowing: - Where to find current information - How to judge reliability - How to build useful learning connections This theory is especially relevant to digital education. --- ## 5.34 Humanism Humanistic learning emphasizes the whole learner. It considers: - Personal growth - Emotions - Choice - Self-esteem - Motivation - Self-actualization The teacher creates a supportive environment. Important names: - Abraham Maslow - Carl Rogers --- ## 5.35 Learning Theory Comparison | Theory | Main Focus | Teacher’s Role | Common Method | |---|---|---|---| | Behaviourism | Observable behaviour | Reinforce desired responses | Drill and feedback | | Cognitivism | Mental processing | Organize meaningful information | Concept maps and problem-solving | | Constructivism | Learner constructs knowledge | Facilitator | Projects and inquiry | | Social Learning | Observation and modeling | Model desired skills | Demonstration | | Connectivism | Learning through networks | Guide digital connections | Online resources | | Humanism | Whole-person growth | Supportive facilitator | Choice and reflection | --- # 5D. Individual Differences and Inclusive Teaching ## 5.36 Individual Differences Learners differ in: - Prior knowledge - Learning pace - Language - Motivation - Interests - Ability - Experience - Social background - Support needs Effective teaching does not assume that every learner learns in exactly the same way or at the same speed. --- ## 5.37 Differentiated Instruction **Differentiated instruction** adjusts teaching according to learner needs. The teacher may vary: - Content - Learning process - Product or output - Level of support - Time - Grouping Example: - Give basic guided exercises to beginners. - Give extension tasks to advanced learners. --- ## 5.38 Inclusive Education **Inclusive education** aims to provide meaningful learning opportunities to all learners, including learners with disabilities and diverse needs. Important practices: - Accessible materials - Clear instructions - Flexible assessment - Assistive technology - Respectful classroom culture - Multiple ways to participate - Reasonable support --- ## 5.39 Universal Design for Learning Universal Design for Learning, or **UDL**, encourages: 1. Multiple means of engagement 2. Multiple means of representation 3. Multiple means of action and expression In simple words: - Motivate learners in different ways. - Present information in different ways. - Allow learners to show learning in different ways. --- # 5E. Evaluation and Assessment ## 5.40 Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation ### Measurement Assigns a numerical value. Example: Student scored 18 out of 25. ### Assessment Collects information about learning. Methods: - Test - Observation - Project - Quiz - Interview - Assignment ### Evaluation Uses assessment information to make a judgment or decision. Example: The learner has achieved the required competency. --- ## 5.41 Placement Assessment Placement assessment determines a learner’s starting level. Used for: - Course placement - Grouping - Selecting appropriate difficulty It occurs before instruction. --- ## 5.42 Diagnostic Assessment Diagnostic assessment identifies: - Prior knowledge - Strengths - Misconceptions - Specific learning difficulties It commonly occurs before teaching or when a learning problem is noticed. Example: A short test checks whether learners understand binary numbers before teaching binary arithmetic. Purpose: Find the cause of a learning difficulty. --- ## 5.43 Formative Assessment Formative assessment occurs during teaching. Purpose: - Monitor progress - Give feedback - Adjust instruction - Improve learning Examples: - Classroom questions - Short quiz - Exit ticket - Draft feedback - Observation - Practice worksheet Memory point: Formative = During learning, for improvement --- ## 5.44 Summative Assessment Summative assessment occurs at the end of a unit, term or course. Purpose: - Judge achievement - Assign grades - Certify learning Examples: - Final examination - End-term project - Board examination - Final practical test Memory point: Summative = Summary at the end --- ## 5.45 Assessment Types Comparison | Type | When? | Main Purpose | |---|---|---| | Placement | Before course | Select suitable level | | Diagnostic | Before or during difficulty | Find strengths and weaknesses | | Formative | During teaching | Improve learning | | Summative | At the end | Judge achievement | --- ## 5.46 Criterion-Referenced Assessment Compares learner performance with defined standards or criteria. Example: A learner passes if all required computer operations are performed correctly. Question: Has the learner achieved the standard? --- ## 5.47 Norm-Referenced Assessment Compares one learner’s performance with the performance of other learners. Examples: - Rank - Percentile - Competitive selection Question: How did the learner perform compared with others? ### Criterion vs Norm Referenced | Criterion-Referenced | Norm-Referenced | |---|---| | Compared with a standard | Compared with other learners | | Focuses on mastery | Focuses on relative position | | Example: competency test | Example: rank or percentile | --- ## 5.48 Formal and Informal Assessment ### Formal Assessment Planned and structured. Examples: - Written test - Practical examination - Standardized test ### Informal Assessment Occurs naturally during learning. Examples: - Observation - Classroom question - Conversation - Quick task --- ## 5.49 Objective and Subjective Questions ### Objective Questions Have clearly defined correct answers. Examples: - MCQ - True/false - Matching - Fill in the blank Advantages: - Fast scoring - High scoring consistency - Wide syllabus coverage ### Subjective Questions Require learners to construct longer responses. Examples: - Essay - Explanation - Long answer - Design task Advantages: - Tests organization - Tests expression - Tests deeper reasoning --- ## 5.50 Validity **Validity** means an assessment measures what it is intended to measure. Example: A programming test should measure programming competence, not mainly handwriting quality. --- ## 5.51 Reliability **Reliability** means an assessment produces consistent results under similar conditions. An unreliable test may give very different results without a real change in ability. --- ## 5.52 Objectivity **Objectivity** means scoring is not unnecessarily affected by the scorer’s personal judgment. A clear marking scheme improves objectivity. --- ## 5.53 Practicality **Practicality** means an assessment is manageable in terms of: - Time - Cost - Resources - Administration - Scoring --- ## 5.54 Feedback Effective feedback should be: - Timely - Specific - Respectful - Related to objectives - Focused on improvement - Actionable Weak feedback: Wrong. Better feedback: Your page-number calculation is correct, but calculate the offset using the remainder. --- # 5F. ICT in Education ## 5.55 What Is ICT? ICT stands for **Information and Communication Technology**. ICT includes technologies used to: - Create information - Store information - Process information - Communicate information - Support teaching and learning Examples: - Computer - Internet - Projector - Interactive display - Educational software - Learning-management system - Video conference - Digital library - Mobile learning application --- ## 5.56 Uses of ICT in Education ### Content Presentation Teachers can use: - Slides - Videos - Animations - Simulations - Digital diagrams ### Communication ICT supports: - Email - Discussion forums - Video meetings - Learning-platform messages ### Assessment ICT supports: - Online quizzes - Automatic scoring - Digital assignments - Progress tracking - Feedback ### Collaboration Learners can work together through: - Shared documents - Discussion boards - Virtual classrooms - Collaborative projects ### Access to Resources Learners can use: - E-books - Digital libraries - Open educational resources - Educational websites - Recorded lectures ### Administration ICT helps manage: - Attendance - Results - Timetables - Student records - Communication with families --- ## 5.57 Learning Management System A **Learning Management System**, or **LMS**, is a platform used to organize and deliver learning. An LMS may support: - Course content - Assignments - Quizzes - Grades - Discussions - Attendance - Progress reports --- ## 5.58 Synchronous and Asynchronous Learning ### Synchronous Learning Teacher and learners participate at the same time. Examples: - Live video class - Live chat - Real-time webinar ### Asynchronous Learning Participants do not need to be online at the same time. Examples: - Recorded lecture - Discussion forum - Email - Self-paced module | Synchronous | Asynchronous | |---|---| | Same time | Different times | | Immediate interaction | Flexible participation | | Live class | Recorded lesson | --- ## 5.59 Computer-Assisted Instruction **Computer-Assisted Instruction**, or **CAI**, uses computers to support teaching. Forms include: - Tutorial - Drill and practice - Simulation - Educational game - Problem-solving program --- ## 5.60 Advantages of ICT in Education 1. Rich multimedia content 2. Flexible learning 3. Access to current information 4. Immediate feedback 5. Personalized practice 6. Collaboration 7. Distance education 8. Accessibility support 9. Efficient administration 10. Better learner engagement --- ## 5.61 Limitations of ICT in Education 1. Digital divide 2. Internet cost 3. Device shortage 4. Power failure 5. Technical problems 6. Teacher-training needs 7. Distraction 8. Cybersecurity risks 9. Privacy risks 10. Unreliable online information 11. Excessive screen time 12. Accessibility barriers if content is poorly designed ### Digital Divide The **digital divide** is the gap between people who have effective access to digital technology and those who do not. The gap may involve: - Devices - Internet - Skills - Language - Accessibility - Quality of access --- ## 5.62 Digital Citizenship **Digital citizenship** means using technology safely, responsibly, ethically and effectively. Important areas: - Online safety - Privacy - Respectful communication - Copyright - Source evaluation - Password security - Cyberbullying prevention - Responsible sharing --- ## 5.63 Role of the Teacher in an ICT Classroom The teacher should: - Select reliable resources - Match technology to learning objectives - Protect learner privacy - Teach safe digital behaviour - Provide alternatives when access is limited - Guide learners instead of using technology without purpose - Ensure accessibility - Monitor progress - Prevent plagiarism - Balance screen and non-screen activities ### Important Principle Technology is a tool, not the learning objective itself. The teacher should use ICT only when it improves learning. --- # 🔑 Quick Revision Sheet ## SDLC Phases Planning ↓ Feasibility ↓ Requirements Analysis ↓ Design ↓ Coding ↓ Testing ↓ Implementation ↓ Maintenance Feasibility mnemonic: TELOS Technical Economic Legal Operational Schedule Maintenance: Corrective = Fix errors Adaptive = Adjust to new environment Perfective = Improve features Preventive = Reduce future problems --- ## SDLC Models | Model | Main Feature | |---|---| | Waterfall | Sequential phases | | V-Model | Development phases matched with tests | | Prototyping | Early model for requirement feedback | | Spiral | Risk analysis in every cycle | | RAD | Rapid development and reusable components | | Agile | Short iterations and frequent delivery | --- ## DFD Symbols: Rectangle = External entity Circle/Rounded rectangle = Process Arrow = Data flow Open-ended rectangle/parallel lines = Data store Rules: - External entity cannot directly update a data store. - Data store cannot directly send data to another data store. - Data must pass through a process. - Process names should be verb phrases. - Data-flow names should be nouns. - Lower-level DFDs must remain balanced. Errors: Black hole = Input without output Miracle = Output without input Grey hole = Output not justified by input --- ## UML | Diagram | Identifying Feature | |---|---| | Use-case | Actors and system functions | Class | Classes, attributes, methods and relationships | | Object | Object instances at a particular time | | Sequence | Messages arranged in time order | | Activity | Workflow, activities and decisions | | State-machine | Changes from one state to another | | Component | Software components and dependencies | | Deployment | Software installed on hardware nodes | Fast identification: Actor + function = Use-case Attribute + method = Class Time-ordered messages = Sequence Workflow = Activity Changing states = State-machine Software modules = Component Hardware nodes = Deployment --- ## Software Testing Testing-level order: Unit ↓ Integration ↓ System ↓ Acceptance Mnemonic: UISA | Testing Level | Main Purpose | |---|---| | Unit | Test one function, class or module | | Integration | Test communication between modules | | System | Test the complete integrated system | | Acceptance | Confirm that the system meets user needs | Integration terms: Stub = Temporary lower-level module in top-down testing Driver = Temporary higher-level calling module in bottom-up testing | Black-Box Testing | White-Box Testing | |---|---| | Tests external behaviour | Tests internal code structure | | No code knowledge required | Code knowledge required | | Based on inputs and outputs | Based on statements, branches and paths | | Includes boundary-value analysis | Includes statement and branch coverage | Other tests: Regression = Recheck old features after a change Smoke = Broad basic test of a build Sanity = Narrow test of a specific change Load = Expected workload Stress = Beyond normal capacity Alpha = Controlled developer environment Beta = Selected real users --- ## Coupling and Cohesion Coupling = Dependency between modules Cohesion = Relatedness within one module Good design: Low coupling + High cohesion Important orders: Stronger/Worse Coupling Content → Common → External → Control → Stamp → Data → Message ↓ Looser/Better Weaker/Worse Cohesion Coincidental → Logical → Temporal → Procedural → Communicational → Sequential → Functional ↓ Stronger/Better --- ## Implementation Strategies | Strategy | Main Idea | Main Exam Point | |---|---|---| | Direct | Stop old and start new immediately | Fastest but highest risk | | Parallel | Run old and new together | Safest but most expensive | | Pilot | Start in one location | Limits risk to pilot location | | Phased | Introduce in stages | Gradual module-by-module change | --- ## Web Technology ### Internet and Web Internet = Global network infrastructure Web = Linked pages and resources using the Internet ### Client-Side and Server-Side | Client-Side | Server-Side | |---|---| | Runs mainly in browser | Runs on server | | HTML, CSS, JavaScript | PHP and server applications | | Handles interface and interaction | Handles business logic and databases | --- ## Important HTML Tags | Tag | Purpose | |---|---| | `<html>` | Root element | | `<head>` | Metadata | | `<title>` | Browser-tab title | | `<body>` | Visible page content | | `<h1>`–`<h6>` | Headings | | `<p>` | Paragraph | | `<br>` | Line break | | `<a>` | Hyperlink | | `<img>` | Image | | `<ul>` | Unordered list | | `<ol>` | Ordered list | | `<li>` | List item | | `<table>` | Table | | `<tr>` | Table row | | `<th>` | Header cell | | `<td>` | Data cell | | `<form>` | Form | | `<input>` | Input control | | `<button>` | Button | | `<div>` | Block container | | `<span>` | Inline container | | `<header>` | Header area | | `<nav>` | Navigation | | `<main>` | Main content | | `<footer>` | Footer area | HTML memory line: HTML = Structure CSS = Presentation JavaScript = Behaviour PHP = Server-side processing XML = Structured data --- ## CSS Types | CSS Type | Location | Scope | |---|---|---| | Inline | Inside `style` attribute | One element | | Internal | Inside `<style>` element | One page | | External | Separate `.css` file | Multiple pages | CSS selector memory: p = Element selector .important = Class selector #header = ID selector CSS box model: Content → Padding → Border → Margin --- ## JavaScript and PHP ### JavaScript - Commonly executes in the browser. - Adds interactivity. - Responds to events. - Can modify the DOM. - Uses `let`, `const` and functions. ### PHP - Executes on the server. - Variables begin with `$`. - Can process forms. - Can communicate with databases. - Generates output sent to the browser. --- ## XML XML rules: 1. One root element 2. Correct nesting 3. Case-sensitive tags 4. Properly closed elements 5. Quoted attribute values | HTML | XML | |---|---| | Displays and structures web content | Stores and exchanges structured data | | Predefined tags | User-defined tags | | Relatively forgiving parsing | Strict syntax | | Focuses on web content | Focuses on describing data | --- ## E-Commerce Models | Model | Meaning | Example | |---|---|---| | B2C | Business to Consumer | Online retail | | B2B | Business to Business | Supplier portal | | C2C | Consumer to Consumer | Used-goods marketplace | | C2B | Consumer to Business | Freelancer serving a company | | G2C | Government to Citizen | Online citizen service | | G2B | Government to Business | E-tendering | | G2G | Government to Government | Departmental data exchange | --- ## IoT IoT means physical objects with: - Sensors - Processing - Software - Connectivity Important components: Sensor = Detects a condition Actuator = Performs an action Controller = Processes data Gateway = Connects and may translate Platform = Stores and analyses data Application = Provides user service Three-layer architecture: Application Layer = Serve ↑ Network Layer = Send ↑ Perception Layer = Sense Five-layer architecture: 1. Perception 2. Transport 3. Processing or middleware 4. Application 5. Business Important IoT applications: - Smart home - Smart agriculture - Healthcare - Smart city - Industrial IoT - Transportation - Energy - Smart education Important IoT challenges: - Security - Privacy - Interoperability - Scalability - Power consumption - Connectivity - Data management - Maintenance --- ## Microsoft Word Important features: Mail Merge = Main document + Data source + Merge fields Track Changes = Records edits Comments = Reviewer notes Styles = Consistent document formatting Header/Footer = Repeated page information Ctrl+Enter = Page break Mail Merge steps: 1. Create main document. 2. Start Mail Merge. 3. Select recipients. 4. Connect data source. 5. Insert merge fields. 6. Preview results. 7. Finish and merge. --- ## Microsoft Excel Basic terms: Workbook = Complete Excel file Worksheet = One spreadsheet page Cell = Row and column intersection Range = Group of cells Formula begins with = Important functions: | Function | Purpose | Example | |---|---|---| | SUM | Add values | `=SUM(B2:B10)` | | AVERAGE | Find arithmetic mean | `=AVERAGE(B2:B10)` | | COUNT | Count numeric cells | `=COUNT(B2:B10)` | | COUNTA | Count non-empty cells | `=COUNTA(B2:B10)` | | MAX | Find largest value | `=MAX(B2:B10)` | | MIN | Find smallest value | `=MIN(B2:B10)` | | IF | Perform a logical test | `=IF(B2>=40,"Pass","Fail")` | | COUNTIF | Count cells meeting a condition | `=COUNTIF(B2:B10,">=40")` | | SUMIF | Add values meeting a condition | `=SUMIF(A2:A10,"Science",B2:B10)` | | VLOOKUP | Look vertically in a table | `=VLOOKUP(E2,A2:C10,3,FALSE)` | Cell references: | Reference | Type | Fixed Part | |---|---|---| | `A1` | Relative | Nothing | | `$A$1` | Absolute | Row and column | | `$A1` | Mixed | Column | | `A$1` | Mixed | Row | PivotTable areas: - Rows - Columns - Values - Filters PivotTable purpose: Summarize and analyse data without normally changing source records. --- ## Microsoft PowerPoint Transition = Effect between slides Animation = Effect on an object within a slide Animation types: - Entrance - Emphasis - Exit - Motion Path Views: | View | Main Use | |---|---| | Normal | Create and edit slides | | Outline | Focus on text structure | | Slide Sorter | Reorder slides | | Notes Page | Work with speaker notes | | Reading | Play presentation in a window | | Slide Show | Full-screen presentation | | Presenter View | Notes and controls for presenter | Important shortcuts: F5 = Slide Show from beginning Shift+F5 = Slide Show from current slide Ctrl+M = New slide --- ## Microsoft Access | Object | Main Purpose | |---|---| | Table | Store data | | Query | Retrieve or modify data | | Form | Enter and edit data | | Report | Present and print formatted data | Query types: - Select - Update - Append - Delete - Make-Table - Parameter - Crosstab Important: Primary key = Uniquely identifies each record Foreign key = Refers to a key in another table --- ## Top MS Office Shortcuts | Shortcut | Function | |---|---| | Ctrl+N | New file | | Ctrl+O | Open | | Ctrl+S | Save | | Ctrl+P | Print | | Ctrl+W | Close | | Ctrl+Z | Undo | | Ctrl+Y | Redo | | Ctrl+X | Cut | | Ctrl+C | Copy | | Ctrl+V | Paste | | Ctrl+A | Select all | | Ctrl+F | Find | | Ctrl+H | Replace | | Ctrl+B | Bold | | Ctrl+I | Italic | | Ctrl+U | Underline | | Ctrl+K | Hyperlink | | Ctrl+L | Align left in Word | | Ctrl+E | Centre align | | Ctrl+R | Align right | | Ctrl+J | Justify | | Ctrl+Enter | Page break | | F7 | Spelling and grammar | | F2 | Edit active Excel cell | | Alt+= | AutoSum | | Ctrl+; | Current date in Excel | | Ctrl+Space | Select Excel column | | Shift+Space | Select Excel row | | Ctrl+Page Up | Previous worksheet | | Ctrl+Page Down | Next worksheet | | Ctrl+M | New PowerPoint slide | | F5 | Slide Show from beginning | | Shift+F5 | Slide Show from current slide | | Esc | End Slide Show | --- ## Pedagogy ### Teaching Methods | Method | Main Feature | |---|---| | Lecture | Teacher presents information | | Demonstration | Teacher shows a procedure | | Discussion | Learners exchange ideas | | Question-Answer | Teacher guides through questions | | Project | Learners create a meaningful product | | Problem-Solving | Learners solve a defined problem | | Discovery | Learners discover concepts | | Cooperative Learning | Small groups work toward shared goals | | Inquiry-Based | Learners investigate questions | | Flipped Classroom | Basic study before class; practice in class | | Blended Learning | Face-to-face plus digital learning | --- ## Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy Order: Remember ↓ Understand ↓ Apply ↓ Analyse ↓ Evaluate ↓ Create | Level | Common Action | |---|---| | Remember | Name, list, define | | Understand | Explain, summarize | | Apply | Use, solve | | Analyse | Compare, differentiate | | Evaluate | Judge, justify | | Create | Design, develop | Highest level: Create --- ## Learning Theories | Theory | Main Focus | |---|---| | Behaviourism | Observable behaviour and reinforcement | | Cognitivism | Mental processes and information processing | | Constructivism | Learners actively construct knowledge | | Social Learning | Learning through observation and modeling | | Connectivism | Learning through digital and social networks | | Humanism | Personal growth and the whole learner | Important names: Pavlov, Watson and Skinner = Behaviourism Piaget = Cognitive development and constructivism Vygotsky = Social constructivism, ZPD and scaffolding Bandura = Social Learning Theory Maslow and Rogers = Humanism --- ## Evaluation Types | Type | When | Main Purpose | |---|---|---| | Placement | Before course | Select suitable level | | Diagnostic | Before teaching or during difficulty | Find strengths and problems | | Formative | During teaching | Improve learning | | Summative | At the end | Judge achievement | Memory rule: Diagnostic = Find the problem Formative = Improve during learning Summative = Judge at the end Other concepts: Validity = Measures what it should measure Reliability = Produces consistent results Objectivity = Minimizes scorer bias Practicality = Manageable in time, cost and resources --- ## ICT in Education ICT uses: - Multimedia lessons - Online assessment - Digital resources - Learning Management Systems - Video conferences - Digital libraries - Collaboration tools - Student-record management Learning modes: Synchronous = Same time Asynchronous = Different times ICT challenges: - Digital divide - Device and Internet cost - Privacy - Cybersecurity - Teacher training - Distraction - Accessibility - Unreliable information Important principle: Technology should support learning objectives, not replace them. --- # 📝 Practice Questions — 25 MCQs ## Questions 1–5: SDLC, Models and DFD ### Question 1 Which SDLC phase determines whether a proposed system is technically and economically practical? A. Coding B. Feasibility study C. Maintenance D. Unit testing ### Question 2 Which SDLC model gives the greatest importance to risk analysis in every cycle? A. Waterfall B. Spiral C. Direct conversion D. V-Model only ### Question 3 Which model directly associates development phases with corresponding testing phases? A. V-Model B. Bus model C. Peer-to-peer model D. Prototype-free model ### Question 4 In a DFD, which symbol represents the movement of data? A. Data-flow arrow B. External-entity rectangle only C. Data-store symbol D. Decision diamond ### Question 5 A DFD process receives input but produces no output. This error is called: A. Miracle B. Black hole C. White box D. Data coupling --- ## Questions 6–10: UML, Testing and Implementation ### Question 6 Which UML diagram shows actors and the functions they use? A. Class diagram B. Deployment diagram C. Use-case diagram D. Component diagram ### Question 7 Which UML diagram shows time-ordered messages between objects? A. Sequence diagram B. Class diagram C. State-machine diagram D. Object diagram ### Question 8 Which testing level checks interaction between combined modules? A. Unit testing B. Integration testing C. Acceptance testing only D. Placement testing ### Question 9 The preferred basic software-design relationship is: A. High coupling and low cohesion B. High coupling and high cohesion C. Low coupling and low cohesion D. Low coupling and high cohesion ### Question 10 Which implementation strategy operates the old and new systems together? A. Direct B. Parallel C. Pilot D. Phased --- ## Questions 11–15: Web, E-Commerce and IoT ### Question 11 Which HTML tag creates a hyperlink? A. `<img>` B. `<a>` C. `<p>` D. `<table>` ### Question 12 Which type of CSS is stored in a separate file and can be reused by many pages? A. Inline CSS B. Internal CSS C. External CSS D. Local HTML ### Question 13 Which technology commonly provides client-side web-page interaction? A. JavaScript B. XML only C. PHP only D. SQL table ### Question 14 A consumer selling a used phone to another consumer is an example of: A. B2B B. B2C C. C2C D. G2C ### Question 15 Which IoT layer directly contains sensors and actuators? A. Application layer B. Perception layer C. Business layer D. Presentation layer --- ## Questions 16–21: MS Office ### Question 16 Mail Merge combines a main document with: A. A data source B. A slide transition C. A PivotTable only D. An animation path ### Question 17 Which Excel formula correctly returns Pass when B2 is at least 40? A. `=SUM(B2,"Pass")` B. `=IF(B2>=40,"Pass","Fail")` C. `=COUNT(B2>=40)` D. `=VLOOKUP("Pass")` ### Question 18 Which Excel reference fixes both the column and the row? A. `A1` B. `$A1` C. `A$1` D. `$A$1` ### Question 19 Which Excel feature summarizes data using Rows, Columns, Values and Filters? A. Mail Merge B. PivotTable C. Track Changes D. Slide Master ### Question 20 Which statement is correct? A. A transition is applied only to an Excel cell. B. An animation occurs only between two workbooks. C. A transition occurs between slides, while an animation affects a slide object. D. Transitions and animations are exactly the same. ### Question 21 Which Microsoft Access object is mainly used to produce formatted printable output? A. Table B. Form C. Report D. Relationship --- ## Questions 22–25: Pedagogy ### Question 22 What is the highest level of the revised Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy? A. Remember B. Apply C. Evaluate D. Create ### Question 23 Which learning theory emphasizes observable behaviour and reinforcement? A. Behaviourism B. Constructivism C. Connectivism D. Humanism only ### Question 24 Which assessment is performed during teaching to improve learning? A. Summative assessment B. Formative assessment C. Final certification only D. Norm ranking only ### Question 25 Which is an example of synchronous ICT-supported learning? A. Recorded lecture watched at any time B. Email read the following day C. Live video class D. Printed textbook --- # ✅ Answer Key + Explanations ## Answer Key | Q. | Answer | Q. | Answer | Q. | Answer | Q. | Answer | Q. | Answer | |---:|:---:|---:|:---:|---:|:---:|---:|:---:|---:|:---:| | 1 | B | 6 | C | 11 | B | 16 | A | 21 | C | | 2 | B | 7 | A | 12 | C | 17 | B | 22 | D | | 3 | A | 8 | B | 13 | A | 18 | D | 23 | A | | 4 | A | 9 | D | 14 | C | 19 | B | 24 | B | | 5 | B | 10 | B | 15 | B | 20 | C | 25 | C | --- ### 1. Answer: B — Feasibility Study A feasibility study checks whether a project is practical. TELOS: - Technical - Economic - Legal - Operational - Schedule --- ### 2. Answer: B — Spiral The Spiral model uses repeated cycles and gives special importance to identifying and managing risks. It is suitable for large and high-risk projects. --- ### 3. Answer: A — V-Model The V-Model connects each development activity with a related testing activity. For example: - Requirements relate to acceptance testing. - Module design relates to unit testing. --- ### 4. Answer: A — Data-Flow Arrow An arrow in a DFD represents data moving between: - External entity - Process - Data store The arrow should normally have a meaningful data name. --- ### 5. Answer: B — Black Hole A black hole receives input but produces no output. A miracle produces output without receiving input. --- ### 6. Answer: C — Use-Case Diagram A use-case diagram displays: - Actors - System functions - Relationships between them It describes the system from the user’s perspective. --- ### 7. Answer: A — Sequence Diagram A sequence diagram shows messages exchanged over time. Time normally moves from top to bottom. --- ### 8. Answer: B — Integration Testing Integration testing checks whether modules communicate and work together correctly. Unit testing checks one module by itself. --- ### 9. Answer: D — Low Coupling and High Cohesion Good modular design aims for: Low coupling between modules High cohesion within each module This improves maintenance, testing and reuse. --- ### 10. Answer: B — Parallel Parallel conversion runs the old and new systems together. It is relatively safe but expensive because work may be duplicated. --- ### 11. Answer: B — `<a>` The anchor element creates a hyperlink. Example: <a href="https://example.com">Visit</a> The `href` attribute contains the destination. --- ### 12. Answer: C — External CSS External CSS is stored in a separate `.css` file. It can be linked to multiple pages, making maintenance easier. --- ### 13. Answer: A — JavaScript JavaScript commonly adds browser-side interaction. Examples: - Button events - Form validation - DOM changes - Dynamic content --- ### 14. Answer: C — C2C C2C means Consumer to Consumer. A person selling a used product to another person through a marketplace is a C2C transaction. --- ### 15. Answer: B — Perception Layer The Perception layer interacts with the physical environment. It contains: - Sensors - Actuators - RFID devices - Embedded controllers --- ### 16. Answer: A — Data Source Mail Merge uses: Main document + Data source + Merge fields The output consists of personalized documents. --- ### 17. Answer: B — IF Formula The correct formula is: =IF(B2>=40,"Pass","Fail") It checks the condition and returns one value when true and another when false. --- ### 18. Answer: D — `$A$1` The dollar signs fix: - Column A - Row 1 Therefore, the reference does not change when copied. --- ### 19. Answer: B — PivotTable A PivotTable summarizes and analyses data. Its main field areas are: - Rows - Columns - Values - Filters --- ### 20. Answer: C — Transition Between Slides; Animation on an Object A transition controls how one slide changes to another. An animation affects an object such as: - Text - Image - Shape - Chart --- ### 21. Answer: C — Report An Access report creates formatted output for: - Viewing - Printing - Grouping - Summarizing A form is mainly used for data entry and interaction. --- ### 22. Answer: D — Create The revised Bloom order is: Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create Create is the highest cognitive level. --- ### 23. Answer: A — Behaviourism Behaviourism focuses on: - Observable behaviour - Stimulus and response - Practice - Reinforcement - Feedback Skinner, Pavlov and Watson are commonly associated with it. --- ### 24. Answer: B — Formative Assessment Formative assessment takes place during learning. It provides information that helps: - Learners improve - Teachers adjust instruction --- ### 25. Answer: C — Live Video Class Synchronous learning occurs at the same time. A live video class allows real-time communication. A recorded lecture is asynchronous. --- # 🎓 Final Concept Tests ## Test 1 — Identify the SDLC Model ### Situation A Requirements are stable, and phases follow a fixed sequence. Answer: Waterfall ### Situation B The project is large and requires repeated risk analysis. Answer: Spiral ### Situation C The team delivers working features in short cycles. Answer: Agile ### Situation D Development activities are directly matched with testing activities. Answer: V-Model ### Situation E The project requires fast development, reusable components and strong user involvement. Answer: RAD --- ## Test 2 — Identify the DFD Element ### A person outside the system sends data. Answer: External entity ### Information is transformed. Answer: Process ### Information moves between elements. Answer: Data flow ### Information is stored for later use. Answer: Data store --- ## Test 3 — Identify the UML Diagram ### Actors interact with system services. Answer: Use-case diagram ### Classes contain attributes and methods. Answer: Class diagram ### Objects exchange messages over time. Answer: Sequence diagram ### A workflow contains activities and decisions. Answer: Activity diagram ### An order changes from New to Confirmed to Shipped. Answer: State-machine diagram ### Software is placed on application and database servers. Answer: Deployment diagram --- ## Test 4 — Identify the Testing Type ### Test one function. Answer: Unit testing ### Test communication between modules. Answer: Integration testing ### Test the complete application. Answer: System testing ### Users determine whether the system meets their needs. Answer: Acceptance testing ### Recheck old functions after a software change. Answer: Regression testing --- ## Test 5 — Select an Implementation Strategy ### Replace everything on one fixed day. Answer: Direct conversion ### Keep old system available while testing the new system. Answer: Parallel conversion ### Introduce the system at one school first. Answer: Pilot conversion ### Introduce attendance first, then examination and reports. Answer: Phased conversion --- ## Test 6 — Identify the Web Technology ### Provides web-page structure. Answer: HTML ### Controls visual presentation. Answer: CSS ### Adds browser interaction. Answer: JavaScript ### Performs server-side processing. Answer: PHP ### Stores and exchanges structured data with user-defined tags. Answer: XML --- ## Test 7 — Excel Formula Practice ### Add B2 through B10 =SUM(B2:B10) ### Find their average =AVERAGE(B2:B10) ### Count numeric cells =COUNT(B2:B10) ### Count non-empty cells =COUNTA(B2:B10) ### Return Pass for marks of at least 40 =IF(B2>=40,"Pass","Fail") ### Keep E1 fixed while copying =$E$1 --- ## Test 8 — Bloom’s Taxonomy ### List HTML tags. Answer: Remember ### Explain the function of HTML tags. Answer: Understand ### Use HTML tags to create a page. Answer: Apply ### Compare HTML and XML. Answer: Analyse ### Judge the accessibility of a website. Answer: Evaluate ### Design a complete school website. Answer: Create --- ## Test 9 — Identify the Assessment ### Find misconceptions before teaching. Answer: Diagnostic assessment ### Give a quiz during a lesson to improve learning. Answer: Formative assessment ### Conduct a final examination. Answer: Summative assessment ### Determine the suitable course level. Answer: Placement assessment --- ## Test 10 — Synchronous vs Asynchronous ### Live online class Synchronous ### Real-time webinar Synchronous ### Recorded lesson Asynchronous ### Email discussion Asynchronous ### Self-paced digital module Asynchronous --- # 🧠 Active Recall Questions ## SAD and SDLC 1. What is a system? 2. What is system analysis? 3. What is system design? 4. What does SDLC mean? 5. Name the main SDLC phases. 6. What does TELOS represent? 7. What is technical feasibility? 8. What is economic feasibility? 9. What is operational feasibility? 10. What is an SRS? 11. What is the difference between functional and non-functional requirements? 12. What is corrective maintenance? 13. What is adaptive maintenance? 14. What is perfective maintenance? 15. What is preventive maintenance? 16. What is the main characteristic of Waterfall? 17. What is the main characteristic of the V-Model? 18. Why is Spiral called risk-driven? 19. What does RAD mean? 20. What is an Agile sprint? ## DFD and UML 21. What does DFD mean? 22. Name the four basic DFD elements. 23. What is a context diagram? 24. What is DFD balancing? 25. Why can an external entity not directly update a data store? 26. What is a black hole? 27. What is a miracle? 28. What is a grey hole? 29. What does UML mean? 30. What does a use-case diagram show? 31. What does a class diagram show? 32. What does a sequence diagram show? 33. What does an activity diagram show? 34. What does a state-machine diagram show? 35. What does a deployment diagram show? ## Testing and Implementation 36. What is verification? 37. What is validation? 38. What is unit testing? 39. What is integration testing? 40. What is system testing? 41. What is acceptance testing? 42. What is the difference between alpha and beta testing? 43. What is black-box testing? 44. What is white-box testing? 45. What is boundary-value analysis? 46. What is regression testing? 47. What is smoke testing? 48. What is coupling? 49. What is cohesion? 50. What is the preferred coupling-cohesion combination? 51. What is direct conversion? 52. What is parallel conversion? 53. What is pilot conversion? 54. What is phased conversion? ## Web Technology and IoT 55. What is the difference between the Internet and the Web? 56. What is a URL? 57. What is HTML? 58. What does the `<a>` tag create? 59. What is the purpose of the `<img>` tag’s `alt` attribute? 60. What is the difference between GET and POST? 61. What is CSS? 62. Name the three CSS types. 63. What is JavaScript? 64. What is the DOM? 65. What is PHP? 66. What is XML? 67. State three XML syntax rules. 68. What is the difference between HTML and XML? 69. What does B2C mean? 70. What does B2B mean? 71. What does C2C mean? 72. What does C2B mean? 73. What is IoT? 74. What is a sensor? 75. What is an actuator? 76. What does an IoT gateway do? 77. Name the three basic IoT architecture layers. 78. What is the function of the Perception layer? 79. Name four IoT applications. 80. Name four IoT challenges. ## Microsoft Office 81. What is Mail Merge? 82. What is a main document? 83. What is a data source? 84. What is a merge field? 85. What does Track Changes do? 86. What is the difference between a comment and a tracked change? 87. What is an Excel workbook? 88. What is a worksheet? 89. What is a cell? 90. What is a range? 91. How does a formula begin? 92. What does SUM do? 93. What does AVERAGE do? 94. What is the difference between COUNT and COUNTA? 95. What is the syntax of IF? 96. What does VLOOKUP do? 97. What is a relative reference? 98. What is an absolute reference? 99. What is a mixed reference? 100. What is a PivotTable? 101. What is the difference between a transition and animation? 102. What is Slide Sorter View used for? 103. What does F5 do in PowerPoint? 104. What does Shift+F5 do? 105. What is an Access table? 106. What is a query? 107. What is a form? 108. What is a report? 109. What is a primary key? 110. What is a parameter query? ## Pedagogy 111. What is pedagogy? 112. What is the lecture method? 113. What is the demonstration method? 114. What is the project method? 115. What is cooperative learning? 116. What is a flipped classroom? 117. What is blended learning? 118. Name Bloom’s six revised levels. 119. What is the highest Bloom level? 120. What does behaviourism emphasize? 121. What does cognitivism emphasize? 122. What does constructivism emphasize? 123. What is Social Learning Theory? 124. What is the Zone of Proximal Development? 125. What is scaffolding? 126. What is diagnostic assessment? 127. What is formative assessment? 128. What is summative assessment? 129. What is validity? 130. What is reliability? 131. What is ICT? 132. What is an LMS? 133. What is synchronous learning? 134. What is asynchronous learning? 135. What is the digital divide? --- # 📊 Self-Assessment Use your score from the 25 MCQs. | Correct Answers | Level | Required Action | |---:|---|---| | 23–25 | Excellent | Revise shortcut keys and quick tables | | 20–22 | Good | Review incorrect answers | | 16–19 | Developing | Repeat SAD, Excel and pedagogy | | 10–15 | Weak | Restudy all five hourly blocks | | 0–9 | Beginning | Read the complete material again slowly | ### Topic Diagnosis | Questions Missed | Revise | |---|---| | 1–5 | SDLC models and DFD | | 6–10 | UML, testing, coupling and implementation | | 11–15 | HTML, CSS, JavaScript, e-commerce and IoT | | 16–21 | Word, Excel, PowerPoint and Access | | 22–25 | Pedagogy, Bloom’s Taxonomy and assessment | --- # 📅 Suggested Five-Hour Study Method ## Hour 1 — SDLC, Models, DFD and UML Study: - SDLC phases - TELOS feasibility - Waterfall - V-Model - Spiral - RAD - Agile - DFD symbols and levels - UML diagrams Tasks: 1. Draw the SDLC cycle. 2. Make a model-comparison table. 3. Draw one context diagram. 4. Identify every major UML diagram. --- ## Hour 2 — Testing, Coupling, Cohesion and Implementation Memorize: Unit → Integration → System → Acceptance Compare: - Black-box and white-box testing - Verification and validation - Coupling and cohesion - Direct, parallel, pilot and phased conversion Golden rules: Low coupling High cohesion Parallel is safest Direct has highest conversion risk --- ## Hour 3 — IoT and Web Technology Study: - HTML tags - CSS types - JavaScript - PHP - XML - E-commerce models - IoT components - IoT architecture - IoT applications and challenges Write from memory: HTML = Structure CSS = Presentation JavaScript = Interaction PHP = Server processing XML = Structured data --- ## Hour 4 — MS Office Practise: - Mail Merge steps - Track Changes - Excel formulas - Cell references - VLOOKUP - PivotTable field areas - PowerPoint views - Access queries - Shortcut keys Write these formulas: =SUM(B2:B10) =AVERAGE(B2:B10) =COUNT(B2:B10) =IF(B2>=40,"Pass","Fail") =VLOOKUP(E2,A2:C10,3,FALSE) --- ## Hour 5 — Pedagogy Study: - Teaching methods - Bloom’s Taxonomy - Learning theories - Assessment types - ICT in education Write without looking: Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create Attempt all 25 MCQs and review every incorrect answer. --- # 🗂️ One-Minute Exam Revision SDLC: Planning Feasibility Analysis Design Coding Testing Implementation Maintenance TELOS: Technical Economic Legal Operational Schedule Waterfall: Sequential V-Model: Testing matched with development Spiral: Risk analysis RAD: Rapid development Agile: Short iterations DFD: Entity, Process, Data Flow, Data Store UML: Use-case = Actors Class = Attributes and methods Sequence = Messages over time Activity = Workflow State = State changes Deployment = Hardware nodes Testing: Unit Integration System Acceptance Design: Low coupling High cohesion Conversion: Direct = Highest risk Parallel = Safest Pilot = One location Phased = One part at a time Web: HTML = Structure CSS = Style JavaScript = Interaction PHP = Server XML = Data E-commerce: B2C, B2B, C2C, C2B IoT: Perception = Sense Network = Send Application = Serve Word: Mail Merge Track Changes Excel: SUM AVERAGE COUNT IF VLOOKUP References: A1 = Relative $A$1 = Absolute $A1 = Fixed column A$1 = Fixed row PowerPoint: Transition = Between slides Animation = On objects Access: Table = Store Query = Ask Form = Enter Report = Present Bloom: Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create Assessment: Diagnostic = Find problem Formative = During learning Summative = End of learning ICT: Synchronous = Same time Asynchronous = Different times --- ## 🎯 Day 14 Completion Checklist - [ ] Can name SDLC models and their key features - [ ] Know DFD symbols and levels - [ ] Can identify UML diagram types - [ ] Know top 30 MS Office shortcut keys - [ ] Excel functions: SUM, AVERAGE, COUNT, IF, VLOOKUP clear - [ ] Know Bloom's 6 levels (Remember→Create) - [ ] HTML tags (10+ important ones) memorized </article></body></html>